7.92×57mm Mauser

7.92×57mm Mauser

From left to right 9.3×62mm, .30-06 Springfield, 7.92×57mm Mauser, 6.5×55mm and .308 Winchester cartridges
Type Rifle
Place of origin  German Empire
Service history
In service 1905–Present
Used by Germany, United Kingdom, Spain, Czechoslovakia, Poland, China, Dominican Republic, Yugoslavia, Ottoman Empire, Turkey, Iran, Egypt, and many other countries
Wars World War I,
World War II
and numerous others
Production history
Designer German Rifle Testing Commission
Designed 1903/1905
Produced 1888–present
Variants 8×57mm IRS (rimmed)
Specifications
Parent case M/88
Case type Rimless, bottleneck
Bullet diameter 8.22 mm (0.324 in)
Neck diameter 9.08 mm (0.357 in)
Shoulder diameter 10.95 mm (0.431 in)
Base diameter 11.94 mm (0.470 in)
Rim diameter 11.95 mm (0.470 in)
Rim thickness 1.30 mm (0.051 in)
Case length 57.00 mm (2.244 in)
Overall length 82.00 mm (3.228 in)
Case capacity 4.09 cm3 (63.1 gr H2O)
Rifling twist 240 mm (1 in 9.45 in)
Primer type Large rifle
Maximum pressure (C.I.P.) 390.0 MPa (56,560 psi)
Maximum pressure (SAAMI) 241.3 MPa (35,000 psi)
Ballistic performance
Bullet weight/type Velocity Energy
11.7 g (181 gr) RWS DK 820 m/s (2,700 ft/s) 3,934 J (2,902 ft·lbf)
12.1 g (187 gr) RWS HMK 820 m/s (2,700 ft/s) 4,068 J (3,000 ft·lbf)
12.7 g (196 gr) RWS TMR 800 m/s (2,600 ft/s) 4,064 J (2,997 ft·lbf)
12.8 g (198 gr) RWS ID Classic 800 m/s (2,600 ft/s) 4,096 J (3,021 ft·lbf)
Test barrel length: 600 mm (23.62 in)
Source(s): RWS / RUAG Ammotech [1]

The 7.92×57mm Mauser (designated as the 8mm Mauser or 8×57mm by the SAAMI [2] and 8 × 57 IS by the C.I.P.[3]) is a rimless bottlenecked rifle cartridge. The 7.92×57mm Mauser cartridge was adopted by the German Empire in 1905, and was the German service cartridge in both World Wars. In its day, the 7.92×57mm Mauser cartridge was one of the world’s most popular military cartridges. In the 21st century it is still a popular sport and hunting cartridge that is factory-produced in Europe and the United States.

Development

1888 pattern M/88 (left) alongside the 1905 pattern 7.92×57mm Mauser S Patrone.

The parent cartridge on which the 7.92×57mm Mauser is based was adopted by Germany in 1888 as the Patrone 88 (cartridge 88) or M/88 (along with the Gewehr 1888 service rifle). The M/88 cartridge was loaded with a relatively heavy 14.6 grams (225 gr) round-nosed ball cartridge with a diameter of 8.08 mm (0.318 in) and was designed by the German Gewehr-Prüfungskommission (G.P.K.) (Rifle Testing Commission).[4]

German government driven efforts to improve the performance of the military M/88 ammunition and the service arms in which the M/88 was used after several development steps resulted in the design by the Gewehr-Prüfungskommission and adaptation in 1905 of the dimensionally redesigned 7.92×57mm Mauser chambering. Besides the chambering, the bore (designated as "S-bore") was also dimensionally redesigned. The 1905 pattern 7.92×57mm Mauser S Patrone (S ball cartridge) was loaded with a lighter 9.9 grams (153 gr), pointed Spitzgeschoß (spitzer bullet) of 8.2 mm (0.323 in) diameter and more powerful double-base (based on nitrocellulose and nitroglycerin) smokeless powder.[4] With the improved ballistic coefficient of the new spitzer bullet, the 1905 pattern cartridge had an improved maximum effective range and a flatter trajectory, and was therefore less critical of range estimation compared to the M/88 cartridge.[5]

The rimless cartridge cases have been used as parent case for several other necked down and necked up cartridges and a rimmed variant.

Military use

Due to the cartridge's high performance and versatility it was adopted by the armed forces of various governments, including Spain, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Iran, Israel, Turkey, China, Egypt, Yugoslavia, former German African colonies, and the early Bundeswehr of West Germany.

During World War II it was one of the few cartridges used by both the Axis and Allied powers, a distinction it shared with the 9×19mm Parabellum pistol round. Apart from being the standard rifle cartridge of the German and Polish armed forces, it was also used by the armed forces of Great Britain in the Besa machine gun, which was mounted in some of their tanks and other armoured vehicles, as well as being extensively used by the Chinese, especially early in the war. Later, when Egypt decided to manufacture the Hakim rifle, a licensed copy of the Swedish Ag m/42, they redesigned the breech to accept the 7.92×57mm Mauser cartridge rather than use the original 6.5×55mm Ag m/42 cartridge. Its military use continues today (2012) in the former Yugoslavia in the Zastava M76 sniper rifle and the license-built copy of the MG 42, the M53 Šarac machine gun.[6]

Rifles formerly manufactured for the Wehrmacht and captured by the Allies were acquired by Israel and played a critical role in the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. Israel, at the time, did not have a domestic arms industry and could not manufacture its own battle rifles, but it could produce replacement parts and refurbish existing weapons. Israel only used its Mauser rifles in their original configuration for a short period, however. When NATO countries adopted a standard rifle cartridge, the 7.62×51mm NATO, Israel replaced all of the 7.92×57mm Mauser barrels on its Mauser rifles with barrels chambered for the then-new 7.62×51mm NATO cartridge.

Civil use

Two bullets side by side for comparison with a tape measure for scale.
7.92×57mm Mauser (above) and the rimmed 8×57mm IRS cartridges loaded with Brenneke TIG hunting bullets

After World War I the Treaty of Versailles imposed comprehensive and complex in the restrictions imposed upon the post-war German armed forces ((the Reichswehr). According to the treaty the Reichswehr could on a limited scale continue using the 7.92×57mm Mauser as their service cartridge. The Treaty of Versailles however effectively nixed the civilian use of 7.92×57mm Mauser chambered rifles by German hunters and sport shooters. During the mid 1930s Germany stopped obeying the restrictions imposed by the Treaty of Versailles and gradually the civilian use of 7.92×57mm Mauser chambered rifles by German hunters and sport shooters was resumed.[4]

The 7.92×57mm Mauser is a common chambering offering in rifles marketed for European and North American sportsmen, alongside broadly similar cartridges such as the 5.6×57mm, 6.5×55mm, 6.5×57mm, and the 6.5×68mm and 8×68mm S magnum hunting cartridges. Major European manufacturers like Zastava Arms, Blaser, Česká Zbrojovka firearms, Heym, Mauser Jagdwaffen GmbH and Steyr Mannlicher produce factory new 7.92×57mm Mauser hunting rifles and European ammunition manufacturers like Blaser, RUAG Ammotec/RWS, Prvi Partizan, Sako and Sellier & Bellot produce factory new ammunition.[4] In 2004 Remington Arms offered a limited-edition Model 700 Classic bolt action hunting rifle chambered for the 7.92×57mm Mauser.[7]

The 7.92×57mm Mauser cartridge's performance makes it suitable for the hunting all medium-sized game such as the deer family, chamois, mouflon, bighorn sheep, wild boar and bear. The 7.92×57mm Mauser can offer very good penetrating ability due to a fast twist rate that enables it to fire long, heavy bullets with a high sectional density.

The 7.92×57mm Mauser cannot be used in countries which ban civil use of former or current military rifle cartridges, like France.

The rimmed variant of the 7.92×57mm Mauser, the 8×57mm IRS, was developed later for break-barrel rifles and combination guns.[8] The 8×57mm IRS is commercially offered as a chambering option in European break-action rifles.[1][8]

Cartridge naming

The naming of this cartridge is cultural and epoch dependent and hence not uniform around the world.

The 7.92×57mm Mauser cartridge is also known by the following designations:

This list is not conclusive and other nomenclature or designation variations might be encountered.

The 7.92 naming convention is often used by English speaking sources for the military issued 7.92×57mm Mauser and 7.92×33mm Kurz cartridges. Remarkably, both the 7.92 and 7,9 used in these and alike designations do not exactly comply to the actual C.I.P. or SAAMI cartridge, chamber and bore dimensions. All other non-military issued rimless and rimmed rifle cartridges originating from Germany having approximately 8 mm bullet diameter are connected to 8 mm namings.[3]

The widespread use in German military Gewehr 98 and Karabiner 98k service rifles designed and manufactured by Mauser caused the "Mauser" tag, though the Mauser company had nothing to do with the development of this cartridge.[10]

The letter "J" often mentioned by English speaking sources is actually an "I" for Infanterie (German for "infantry"). A stamped "I" at the cartridge bottom in writing styles used in the past in Germany could be easily mistaken for a "J". Even in the 21st century the "I" is often substituted by a "J" in English speaking communities and German ammunition manufacturers often write "JS" instead of "IS" to avoid confusing customers. The letter "S" stands for Spitzgeschoß ("pointed bullet"), and the English designation "spitzer" for that style of bullet is derived from this German term.

Current European civil C.I.P. designation

German made unprimed cases with their packaging box displaying the C.I.P. 8 × 57 IS cartridge designation.

The mainly European arms standards body Commission Internationale Permanente pour l'Epreuve des Armes à Feu Portatives (Permanent International Commission for portable firearms testing) (C.I.P.)—an organisation for standards in ammunition for civilian use—currently (2012) designates the 7.92×57mm Mauser as the 8 × 57 IS. This designation has the power of law for civil use in C.I.P. member states like the United Kingdom.[3]

Warning: the 8 × 57 IS and 8 × 57 I (other non-military issued rifle cartridge developed by civilians after the 8 × 57 IS) are not the same cartridge and are not interchangeable. To avoid catastrophic firearm failures that could endanger users or bystanders, it is important to distinguish clearly between these two differing chamberings and bullet diameters, and only fire them in appropriately chambered/barrelled rifles.

Current U.S. civil SAAMI designations

five cartridges held together at their bases by a strip of metal
German stripper clip with five 7.92×57mm IS cartridges for the Gewehr 98 and Karabiner 98k German rifles.

The United States standardizing body for sporting cartridges Sporting Arms and Ammunition Manufacturers' Institute (SAAMI) currently (2012) designates the 7.92×57mm Mauser cartridge as the 8mm Mauser, also known as 8×57mm.[2]

Since the SAAMI has no authority to issue nomenclature rulings, the nomenclature used for this cartridge can vary in the United States.

Historic military designations

The German military used 7,9mm as designation or omitted any diameter reference and only printed the exact type of loading on ammunition boxes during World War II.

In Sweden the cartridge was designated "8mm patron m/39"[11]

The Polish military used 7,9mm or 7,92mm designations (mostly 7,9mm).[12]

The British military's Besa machine gun was chambered for the 7.92×57mm Mauser, and was used in armoured vehicles during World War II. The British referred to this ammunition as Cartridge SA, 7.92.[13]

United States intelligence documents from World War II refer to the cartridge as 7.92 or 7.92 mm or 7.92-mm.[14][15]

Cartridge drawings and dimensions

The 7.92×57mm Mauser cartridge has a cartridge case capacity of 4.09 ml (63 grains) H2O. The exterior shape of the case was designed to promote reliable case feeding and extraction in bolt action rifles and machine guns alike, under extreme conditions.

7.92×57mm Mauser maximum C.I.P. cartridge dimensions. All sizes in millimeters.

Americans would define the shoulder angle at alpha/2 ≈ 19.1 degrees. The common rifling twist rate for this cartridge is 240 mm (1 in 9.45 in), 4 grooves, Ø of the lands = 7.89 mm (0.311 in), Ø grooves = 8.20 mm (0.323 in), land width = 4.40 mm (0.173 in) and the primer type is large rifle.

According to the official C.I.P. (Commission Internationale Permanente pour l'Epreuve des Armes à Feu Portatives) rulings the 7.92×57mm Mauser can handle up to 390.00 MPa (56,565 psi) Pmax piezo pressure. In C.I.P. regulated countries every rifle cartridge combo has to be proofed at 125% of this maximum C.I.P. pressure to certify for sale to consumers.[16] This means that 7.92×57mm Mauser chambered arms in C.I.P. regulated countries are currently (2013) proof tested at 487.50 MPa (70,706 psi) PE piezo pressure.[3]

The SAAMI (voluntary) Maximum Average Pressure (MAP) for this cartridge is 35,000 psi (241.3 MPa) piezo pressure or (37,000 CUP).[17][18] This is considerably lower than the C.I.P. pressure limit and is done for liability reasons, in case a 7.92×57mm Mauser cartridge is fired in an "I-bore" rifle that has a narrower throat and barrel diameter. Most European ammunition manufacturers generally only load to a lower pressure limit for I-bore cartridges; and the US based manufacturer Hornady followed their lead in their (now discontinued) EuroSpec brand 8×57 JS load.

German military ammunition

"There were many German military versions of the cartridge, and Germany never stopped its development of different variations until the end" of World War II. "The bullet lengths varied a great deal through the different types, but all were loaded to an overall length" of 80.5 mm (3.17 in). The Germans had started using steel cases in World War I, "and by the end of 1943, most German ammunition had that type of case."[19] The weights and case capacities of the World War II military cartridge cases varied somewhat. The German military ammunition manufacturer Polte produced brass cartridge cases weighing 10.32 g (159 gr) with 4.03 ml (62 gr) H2O case capacity and steel cartridge cases weighing 10.90 g (168 gr) with 3.95 ml (61 gr) H2O case capacity.[20] The steel cartridge cases were produced in copper plated and lacquered executions.

German military standard ball service rifle cartridge evolution

Ballistic tables for the S Patrone and the s.S. Patrone fired from a 600 mm (23.6 in) barrel.[21][22]
7.92×57mm Mauser German military standard issue rifle cartridges
Name Year Caliber Bullet mass Length Rim Base Shoulder Neck OAL Muzzle velocity Muzzle energy
M/88 1888 8.07 mm (0.318 in) 14.6 g (225.3 gr) 57 mm (2.2 in) 11.95 mm (0.470 in) 11.94 mm (0.470 in) 10.95 mm (0.431 in) 8.99 mm (0.354 in) 80.5 mm (3.17 in) 639 m/s (2,096 ft/s) 2,983 joules (2,200 ft·lbf)
7.92×57mm Mauser S Patrone 1905 8.2 mm (0.323 in) 9.9 g (152.8 gr) 57 mm (2.2 in) 11.95 mm (0.470 in) 11.94 mm (0.470 in) 10.95 mm (0.431 in) 9.08 mm (0.357 in) 80.5 mm (3.17 in) 878 m/s (2,881 ft/s) 3,816 joules (2,815 ft·lbf)
7.92×57mm Mauser s.S. Patrone 1934 8.2 mm (0.323 in) 12.8 g (197.5 gr) 57 mm (2.2 in) 11.95 mm (0.470 in) 11.94 mm (0.470 in) 10.95 mm (0.431 in) 9.08 mm (0.357 in) 80.5 mm (3.17 in) 760 m/s (2,493 ft/s) 3,697 joules (2,727 ft·lbf)

The data for the M/88 and the 7.92×57mm Mauser S Patrone of 1905 is for Gewehr 98 rifles with 740 mm (29.1 in) barrel length.

The data for the 7.92×57mm Mauser s.S. Patrone of 1934 is for Karabiner 98k rifles with 600 mm (23.6 in) barrel length.

German cartridge variants during World War II

Karabiner 98k stripper clip with brass-cased 7.92×57mm ammunition
composite photograph of cartridge cut in half stood next to intact cartridge and base of cartridge
German 7.92 mm s.S. 12.8 g (198 gr) Full Metal Jacket Boat-Tail round.
Steel lacquered cased German s.S. ball ammunition produced in 1941.
Spitzgeschoß mit Kern, yellow bullet, red circular cap groove

The German standard s.S. - schweres Spitzgeschoß ("heavy pointed or spitzer bullet") ball bullet was originally introduced in WW I for long range machinegun use and was 35.3 mm (1.39 in) long, boat-tailed, and very well made.[23][19] It was lead filled, had a gilding-metal-plated jacket, and weighed 12.8 grams (197.53 gr). The s.S. ball boat tail projectile was designed for long range use and offered the best aerodynamic efficiency and external ballistic performance of any standard rifle bullet used during World War II, with a G1 ballistic coefficient between 0.593 and 0.557 (ballistic coefficients are somewhat debatable) or a ballistic coefficient of approximately 0.295 (G7). When fired at the typical muzzle velocity of 760 m/s (2,493 ft/s) out of a 600 mm (23.6 in) barrel the s.S. bullet retained supersonic velocity up to and past 1,000 m (1,094 yd) (V1000 ≈ Mach 1.07) under International Standard Atmosphere conditions at sea level (air density ρ = 1.225 kg/m3). It had a maximum range of approximately 4,700 m (5,140 yd)[21] Even by contemporary (2012) standards 1000+ m (1,094+ yards) effective supersonic range is quite remarkable for a standard military rifle round. For recognition the circular groove between cap and brass was green, and it had a yellow colored bullet.

The regular s.S. projectile had the following penetration performance: 85 cm (33 in) of dry pine wood at 100 m (109 yd), 65 cm (26 in) at 400 m (437 yd), 45 cm (18 in) at 800 m (875 yd) and 10 cm (4 in) at 1,800 m (1,969 yd), 10 mm (0.39 in) of iron at 300 m (328 yd), 7 mm (0.28 in) at 550 m (601 yd), 5 mm (0.20 in) of steel at 100 m (109 yd) and 3 mm (0.12 in) at 600 m (656 yd).

During World War II German snipers were issued with purpose-manufactured sniping ammunition, known as the 'effect-firing' s.S. round.[24] The 'effect-firing' s.S. round featured an extra carefully measured propellant charge and seated an sS full-metal-jacketed boat-tail projectile of match-grade build quality, lacking usual features such as a cannelure to further improve the already high G1 ballistic coefficient to approximately 0.595 (G1) or 0.300 (G7).[25] The 'effect-firing' s.S. projectile had a form factor (G7 i) of 0.869, which indicates good aerodynamic efficiency and external ballistic performance for the bullet diameter.[26][27]

Special ammunition included:[20][28][29]

British military ammunition

British cartridges included "Ball", "Armour-Piercing", "Tracer", and "Incendiary". Blanks and a Drill round were also available for instruction purposes. The Drill round was an aluminium bullet fixed in a chromium-plated case which had three deep lengthwise recesses painted red to identify it. Ammunition was supplied in belted form with 225 rounds per belt.[13]

Designation Marks Annulus colour Notes
Cartridge, SA, Ball, 7.92mm Mark I.Z, Mark II.Z Dark purple if present Mark II.Z bullet has "flatter" nose and longer parallel portion to engage with rifling
Cartridge, SA, Armour-piercing, 7.92mm Mark I.Z, Mark II.Z Green Hard steel core, lead-antimony sleeve, steel envelope
Cartridge, SA, Tracer, 7.92mm Mark I.Z, Mark II.Z Red Red tracer composition in non-streamlined bullet. Effective for 900 yards.
Cartridge, SA, Incendiary, 7.92mm Mark I Blue

The Ball case was filled with a charge of around 45 grains (3 g) of nitro-cellulose.[13]

The British cartridge was used in only one weapon—the Besa machine gun. This was a Czech design adopted shortly before the war as a move towards rimless ammunition across the armed service. However the move was disrupted by the lead up to war. The BESA was only fitted to tanks and armoured cars of British design (the original Czech design was also produced for German use following the occupation of Czechoslovakia) and captured German ammunition was used when available.

Polish military ammunition

The cartridges manufactured in Poland during the interwar period were mainly copies or modifications of the corresponding original German cartridge designs. The standard rifle cartridge was the S—a copy of the 1905 pattern German S Patrone loaded with the 9.9 g (152.8 gr) S bullet. For machine guns a cartridge variant loaded with the heavier 12.8 g (197.5 gr) SC bullet—a copy of the German 1934 pattern s.S. cartridge—was used. The armor-piercing variant loaded with the P bullet was a copy of the German SmK cartridge. The armor-piercing with tracer PS and incendiary Z cartridges were Polish modifications of the original German counterpart designs. The Polish designed a long-range machine gun cartridge loaded with the D bullet, which offered a maximum plunging fire range of 5,200 m (5,687 yd) to 5,500 m (6,015 yd).[12]

Yugoslav military ammunition

After World War II the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia used the 7.92×57mm Mauser as military service round. The Yugoslav National Army (JNA) designated their 7.92×57mm Mauser ammunition as 7,9 mm. At the end of the 1940s the Yugoslav National Army adopted a 7,9 mm Cartridge, Ball M49 variant, designated as M49, as infantry ammunition.[31] As extra accurate ammunition for sniper and designated marksman use the Yugoslav National Army adopted a 7,9 mm Cartridge, Sniper, with Universal ball M75, designated as M75.[32] Besides ball ammunition the Yugoslav National Army also adopted a tracer round 7,9 mm Cartridge, Ball with tracer M70, designated as M70. The M70 tracer round burns out to 900 m (980 yd).[33] For training and ceremonial use a 7,9 mm Cartridge, Blank was adopted.[34] After the breakup of Yugoslavia this ammunition was extensively used in the 1990s during the Yugoslav wars.

The 7.92×57mm Mauser as parent case

8×57 IRS and 8×57 IS (a.k.a. 7.92×57mm Mauser) sporting rounds. The rimless cartridge on the right is used in repeating and self-loading rifles, the other is for breech-loading only (and therefore rimmed)

This was the parent case for many other later cartridges, such as:

See also

Contemporary military rifle cartridges

Notes

Footnotes

    Citations

    1. 1 2 RWS Rifle Cartridge Brochure showing 8×57mm IR, 8×57mm IS and 8×57mm IRS cartridge offerings at page 9
    2. 1 2 SAAMI 8mm MAUSER (7.92×57) cartridge and chamber drawings
    3. 1 2 3 4 CIP decisions, texts and tables 2007 CD-ROM
    4. 1 2 3 4 8×57mm IS cartridge portrait - Totgesagte leben länger, Wild und Hund 11/2006 (German)
    5. ↑ The 8 mm (7,92×57) Mauser Cartridge
    6. ↑ Machine Gun 42
    7. ↑ Remington's 8×57 Classic
    8. 1 2 Table II pages 31-32.
    9. ↑ German 7,9mm Military Ammunition 1888-1945 by Daniel W. Kent
    10. ↑
    11. ↑ http://gotavapen.se/gota/artiklar/rifles_se/gev39_40.htm Swedish
    12. 1 2 Dąbrowski, Jarosław. Amunicja małokalibrowa kampanii wrześniowej (Small-calibre ammunition of the September campaign) in: "Strzał" 10/2010, pp. 18-24 (in Polish)
    13. 1 2 3 Royal Armoured Corps Tank Museum (1983). Churchill Tank: Vehicle History and Specification. H.M. Stationery Office. pp. 100–102. ISBN 978-0-11-290404-5.
    14. ↑ Military Intelligence Service, Special Series No. 14, May 25, 1943 Section V: AMMUNITION 27. RIFLE AND MACHINE-GUN AMMUNITION (7.92-MM)
    15. ↑ Catalog of Enemy Ordnance Originally Published by U.S. Office of Chief of Ordnance, 1945
    16. ↑ C.I.P. TDCC datasheet 8 x 57 IS
    17. ↑ ANSI/SAAMI Centerfire Rifle | Z.299.4 1992 - Pages 19 and 24 of 240
    18. ↑ ANSI/SAAMI Velocity & Pressure Data: Centerfire Rifle
    19. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Maj. James C. Beyer, MC, Maj. James K. Arima, MSC, and Doris W. Johnson. "Enemy Ordnance Materiel". Wound Ballistics. Office of the Surgeon General Department of the Army. pp. 52–53.
    20. 1 2 7.9mm Mauser Polte factory drawings of various German military cartridge variants, projectiles and cartridge case
    21. 1 2 The 8mm (7,92X57) Mauser Cartridge, Ballistics of the F.N. Rifle, Cal. 7,9 m/m Streamlined Pointed Bullet with Tapered Base (197.5 gr.)
    22. ↑ FN Mauser Model 98 rifle and carbine operator's manual
    23. ↑ Towards a “600 m” lightweight General Purpose Cartridge, v2015 p. 12
    24. ↑ Peter R. Senich: German Sniper 1914-45, Page 91
    25. ↑ 7.9mm Mauser drawing of s.S. proofing projectile without cannelure
    26. ↑ The Case for a General-Purpose Rifle and Machine Gun Cartridge (GPC) by Anthony G Williams
    27. ↑ Form Factors: A Useful Analysis Tool by Bryan Litz, Chief Ballistician Berger Bullets
    28. ↑ W. Reibert, Der Dienst-Unterricht im Heere, Ausgabe für den Schützen der Schützenkompanie, edition 1940, pp. 169f.
    29. ↑ 7.9mm Mauser color codes drawings of various German military cartridge variantse
    30. ↑ Albrecht Wacker (2000). Im Auge des Jägers: der Wehrmachts-Scharfschütze Franz Karner ; (eine biographische Studie). ISBN 978-3-932077-12-8.
    31. ↑ 7.9mm Cartridge, Ball M49
    32. ↑ 7.9mm Cartridge, Sniper, with Universal ball M75
    33. ↑ 7.9mm Cartridge, Ball with tracer M70
    34. ↑ 7.9mm Cartridge, Blank

    References

    External links

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