Grey Owl

This article is about the writer. For the bird, see Great grey owl. For the film, see Grey Owl (film).
Grey Owl

Portrait of Grey Owl (1936), by Yousuf Karsh
Born Archibald Belaney
(1888-09-18)September 18, 1888
Hastings, England
Died April 13, 1938(1938-04-13) (aged 49)
Prince Albert, Saskatchewan, Canada
Cause of death Pneumonia and alcoholism
Resting place Prince Albert National Park
54°8′49″N 106°28′4″W / 54.14694°N 106.46778°W / 54.14694; -106.46778Coordinates: 54°8′49″N 106°28′4″W / 54.14694°N 106.46778°W / 54.14694; -106.46778
Nationality British (later Canadian)
Alma mater Hastings Grammar School
Occupation Writer
Environmentalist
Employer Dominion Parks Service
Known for Environmental conservation
Home town Hastings, England
Spouse(s) Angele Egwuna
Constance Holmes
Anahareo (Gertrude Bernard)
Yvonne Perrier
Children Agnes
Shirley Dawn (1932–1984)
Grey Owl's cabin "Beaverlodge", Ajawaan Lake
Graves of Grey Owl, Anahareo and Shirley Dawn at Ajawaan Lake
The beaver lodge inside Grey Owl's cabin

Grey Owl (or Wa-sha-quon-asin, from the Ojibwe wenjiganooshiinh, meaning "great horned owl" or "great grey owl") was the name Archibald Belaney (September 18, 1888 – April 13, 1938) chose for himself when he took on a First Nations identity as an adult. Born in England as Archibald Stansfeld Belaney, and migrating to Canada in the first decade of the 20th century, he rose to prominence as a notable author, lecturer, and one of the "most effective apostles of the wilderness".[1] In his studies of the Ojibwe, Belaney learned some native harvesting techniques and trapping skills. The pivotal moment of departure for Grey Owl's early conservation work was when he began his relationship with a young Iroquois girl named Gertrude Bernard, who assisted in his transition from trapper to conservationist.[2]

In working with the National Parks Branch, Grey Owl gained recognition and fame in his early career as a conservationist, becoming the subject of many films, and being established as the “‘caretaker of park animals’ at Riding Mountain National Park in Manitoba” in 1931.[3] Together with his numerous articles, books, films and lectures, his views on conservation reached audiences beyond the borders of Canada, challenging people to re-evaluate their relationship with nature. His conservation views largely focused on humans' negative impact on nature through their commodification of nature's resources for profits, and a need for humans to develop a respect for the natural world.[4]

Revelation of his British origins after his death adversely affected Grey Owl's reputation. Since the 1970s and, with the centennial of his birth, there has been renewed public appreciation for his conservation efforts. Recognition has included biographies, a historic plaque at his birthplace, and a 1999 biopic about his life by the director Richard Attenborough.

Early life

Archibald Stansfeld Belaney was born in September 1888, near Hastings, England.[5] Born to George Belaney and his wife Katherine (Kittie) Cox, Archie was mostly of English descent on both sides; his paternal grandfather had come from Scotland and married in England.[6][7]

Kittie was his father's second wife. Years before Archie's birth, George Belaney had emigrated to the United States with his then-wife Elizabeth Cox and her younger sister Katherine (Kittie). After Elizabeth's early death, George persuaded Kittie, not yet 20, to marry him. Within the year they returned to England in time for the birth of their son Archie. The family lived together near Hastings until Kittie became pregnant for a second time. The father and Kittie left to return to the United States, where he abandoned her.[8] Kittie had left Archie in the care of his father's mother Juliana Belaney and his two younger sisters, Julia Caroline Belaney and Janet Adelaide Belaney,[9] whom the boy would know as Aunt Carry and Aunt Ada. Kittie visited him a few times.

Belaney later told his publisher his father was Scottish. The Belaney name does have roots in Scotland. One of his biographers documented that Archie's paternal grandfather had moved from Scotland to England, where he became a successful merchant.[10] The Belaney boy attended Hastings Grammar School, where he excelled in subjects such as English, French and chemistry.[11] While outside school, he spent much time reading, or exploring St Helen's Wood near his home.[12]

As a boy, Belaney was known for pranks, such as using his grammar school chemistry to make small bombs.[13] He called them "Belaney Bombs".[14] Fascinated by Native Americans, Belaney read about them and drew them in the margins of his books. Belaney left Hastings Grammar School and started work as a clerk with a timber company located behind St Helen's Wood.[15] There Belaney and his friend George McCormick perfected the arts of knife throwing and marksmanship. Belaney turned his creativity to pursuits other than work. His last event there was lowering fireworks down the chimney of the timber company's office. The fireworks exploded and nearly destroyed the building. After the timber yard fired him, Belaney's aunts let him move to Canada, where he sought adventure.

Emigration to Canada

On March 29, 1906 Belaney boarded the SS. Canada and sailed for Halifax.[16] He emigrated ostensibly to study agriculture. After a brief time in Toronto, he moved to Temagami (Tema-Augama), Northern Ontario, where he worked as a fur trapper, a wilderness guide at Keewaydin, and forest ranger. At first he began to sign his name as "Grey Owl". Then he fabricated a Native identity, telling people that he was the child of a Scottish father and Apache mother. He claimed to have emigrated from the U.S. to join the Ojibwa in Canada.

Trapping

Belaney's passion for nature and all living things facilitated his trapping career. Belaney decided to go to Toronto to earn money in the retail industry with aims of travelling farther north. Before heading to Northern Ontario to stay with the Guppy Family in Lake Timiskaming, Belaney was keen to become a guide and continued to educate himself in nature.[17] Before becoming a trapper, Belaney sought first hand experience to learn the basic skills of a woodsman and apprenticed himself to Bill Guppy. Bill taught Belaney how to use snow-shoes and the basics of trapping, including how to place several types of trap.[18] Following the Guppy family, he moved to Lake Temagami (Tema-Augama), Northern Ontario, where he worked as a chore boy at the Temagami Inn. For two years, Belaney worked as a chore boy and also made a trip back to England.[19]

Upon his return to Lake Temagami, Belaney's fascination with the Anishinaabe people increased. Belaney set about studying their language and lore while conducting a relationship with Ojibwe co-worker Angele Egwuna. Angele furthered Archie's knowledge of trapping and fish nets, and also provided access to a network of Ojibwa people.[20] Belaney claims he passionately embraced the cause of the Ojibwe Indians, and in turn the Ojibwe treated Belaney as one of their own. In 1909, Belaney spent a winter with the Ojibwa trappers, and claimed he had been adopted as an Ojibwa trapper.[20] In Donald B. Smith's From the Land of Shadows, it is said that Belaney's greatest lesson was the fragility of the environmental ecosystem, which was influential in forming his conservationist views. On August 23, 1910, he and Angele Egwuna married.[21]

In the military

Belaney enlisted with the Canadian Overseas Expeditionary Force (CEF) on May 6, 1915 during World War I. His Regimental number with the CEF was 415259. On his attestation papers, he claimed to be born in Montreal on September 18, 1888, and listed no next of kin. When asked about his marital status, it appears some confusion may have occurred; the word 'yes' was written and then crossed out, then the word 'no' was written and crossed out, leaving his marital status unclear to the military at the time of enlistment. He stated his trade was a 'trapper', and that he previously served as a 'Mexican Scout' with the 28th Dragoons, although this is unclear since the U.S. was not in any significant military actions in the region (other than small operations, in which he could not have served; he would have had to serve between 1904 and 1915). Belaney joined the 13th (Montreal) Battalion of the Black Watch. His unit was shipped to France, where he served as a sniper. His comrades accepted his self-presentation as Indian and generally praised his conduct. Belaney was wounded in January 1916, and then more seriously on April 24, 1916, with a shot through the foot. When the wounded limb developed gangrene, Grey Owl was shipped to England for treatment.

While doctors tried to heal his foot, they moved Grey Owl from one British infirmary to another for a full year. In England, Grey Owl met again with childhood friend, Constance (Ivy) Holmes, and they married. Their marriage failed in a short time, without his having told Holmes that he was still married to Angele, whom he had abandoned but not divorced.[22]

Grey Owl was shipped back to Canada in September 1917, where he received an honourable discharge on November 30, with a disability pension.

Early conservation work

Grey Owl feeding a beaver a jelly roll

In 1925, then 37-year-old Grey Owl met 19-year-old Gertrude Bernard (aka Anahareo, or Pony), a Mohawk Iroquois woman who was to be very influential in his life. She encouraged him to stop trapping and to publish his writing about the wilderness. They had a passionate eight-year affair, beginning with their Anishinaabe wedding ceremony.[23][24] Through her influence, he began to think more deeply about conservation. Anahareo encouraged his writing and influenced him by saving and raising a pair of beaver kits.

After accompanying Grey Owl on a trapline, Anahareo attempted to make him see the torture that animals suffered when they were caught in traps.[25] Anahareo could not convince Grey Owl until his pivotal moment of conversion from trapper to conservationist occurred involving beavers. According to Grey Owl's Pilgrims of the Wild, he hunted down a beaver home where he knew a mother beaver to be and set a trap for her.[26] When the trap caught the mother beaver, Grey Owl began to canoe away to the cries of kitten beavers which greatly resemble the sound of human infants.[27] Anahareo begged Grey Owl to set the mother free, but he could not be swayed from his position because they needed the money from the beaver's pelt.[26] The next day, Grey Owl went back for the baby beavers which the couple adopted, making the beginning of his gradual transformation from trapper to conservationist.[26] As Albert Braz stated in his article St. Archie of the Wild, "Indeed, primarily because of this episode, Grey Owl comes to believe that it is 'monstrous' to hunt such creatures and determines to 'study them' rather than 'persecuting them further.'"[28]

Grey Owl's first journal article, "The Falls of Silence", was published under the name A.S. Belaney in Country Life, the famous English sporting and society magazine. He also published articles on animal lore as Grey Owl in Forest & Outdoors, a publication of the Canadian Forestry Association. He became increasingly known in Canada and the United States. In 1928, the National Park Service made a film, Beaver People, featuring Grey Owl and Anahareo, which showed them with two beavers which they had taken in as kits and raised after their mother was killed. Grey Owl wrote twenty-five articles for Canadian Forest and Outdoors magazine between 1930 and 1935, published while he was in the midst of writing his first book.[29]

Grey Owl's first book called The Men of the Last Frontier was published in 1931, and it traced the devastating story of the beaver as well as posed some very valid concerns about the future of Canada and its forests. Beaver pelts had become such a hot commodity in Canadian industry that the beaver was on the verge of extinction when Anahareo helped Grey Owl understand the desperate need for protecting the animal instead of trapping it.[30] According to Grey Owl in The Men of the Last Frontier, trappers swarmed to the forests in higher numbers than ever before in 1930 because of the beaver's scarcity, and he argued that the only way to save this animal was to remove all of the trappers from the forests.[31] This was an extremely difficult feat however because their pelts were so valuable and the job economy was so poor in the 1930s that Grey Owl described their role in the economy as "beavers [being] to the north what gold was to the west".[32] Though much of his focus in his writings were on the beaver, Grey Owl also believed that this animal could be used as a symbol for the disappearing future of Canadian wilderness in a broader sense.[33] Grey Owl believed that Canada's wilderness and vastly open nature was what made it unique from other countries of the world, and this was disappearing at an extremely fast rate due to consumerism and the modernist emphasis on capital.[34] Grey Owl also discussed in The Men of the Last Frontier how the Canadian government and logging industry were working together to project a false image of forest preservation in order to gain possession of Canada's forests and rid them of their resources, burn down what remained, and attempt to replant "synthetic forests" in their places.[35] Grey Owl's The Men of the Last Frontier was a call of desperation for the people of Canada to awaken from their immobility and resist the destruction of their country as the forests were being turned into deserts for profit.[36] Grey Owl's conversion from trapper to conservationist, his first book The Men of the Last Frontier and the journal articles he had published in Forest & Outdoors, as well as with The Canadian Forestry Association was only the beginning of his fame(in northern "Canada"). These endeavours led to interest from Parks Canada in creating a film about Grey Owl and his pet beaver as a way to promote ideas of conservation.

Work with Dominion Parks Branch

Grey Owl's relationship with Parks Canada, known in the 1930s as Dominion Parks Branch, began when he published stories through the Canadian Forestry Association. His publications in Canadian Forest and Outdoors brought him into contact with Gordon Dallyn, the then editor of Canadian Forest and Outdoors, who introduced him to James Harkin, the Parks Branch Commissioner.[37] Sharing similar concerns over wilderness conservation as Grey Owl, the Parks Branch agreed to make a film with Grey Owl and Jelly Roll (his pet beaver) with the goal of “provid[ing] a living argument for conservation.”[37] W. J. Oliver who at the time was under contract with the Parks Branch was the prominent cameraman of the Grey Owl movies commissioned by Parks Branch, along with filming of Grey Owl, Oliver also took many pictures of him looking “consciously Indian.”[38] These photographs would be used as illustrations in both Grey Owl's books such as The Men of the Last Frontier, and as publicity for his lecturing tours. The film received good reception from the Forestry Association. Thinking it would bring increased tourism to the national park which Grey Owl would be working at, along with serving as a platform where Grey Owl could promote his conservation work, James Harkin offered Grey Owl a job at the Riding Mountain National Park in early 1931.[39]

In 1931, Grey Owl and Anahareo moved briefly (with their beavers) to a cabin in Riding Mountain National Park to find a sanctuary for them. Riding Mountain National Park was found to be an unsuitable habitat for the beavers, as a summer drought resulted in the lake water level sinking, and becoming stagnant.[40] Both the beavers and Grey Owl were unhappy with the situation at Riding Mountain National Park, causing Grey Owl to search, with the support of the Dominion Parks Branch, for better living conditions.[41] The Parks Branch suggested Prince Albert National Park, situated 450 miles north-west of Riding Mountain National Park.[41] Grey Owl and Anahareo found the Park suitable for their needs as it was isolated, teeming with wildlife, heavily wooded, and Grey Owl had a favorable impression of the Superintendent of the Park, Major J.A. Wood.[41] The greater sized waterway of Prince Albert National Park was found to be a more suitable beaver habitat, as the lake at Riding Mountain National Park had a risk of freezing to the bottom during winter.[42] Living together at Prince Albert National Park, Grey Owl and Anahareo had a daughter together, Shirley Dawn, who was born August 23, 1932. Prince Albert National Park would be home for Grey Owl, up until his death in 1938.

Belaney told his publisher and future biographer, Lovat Dickson, the following story about his origins:

He was the son of a Scottish father and Apache mother. He claimed his father was a man named George MacNeil, who had been a scout during the 1870s Indian Wars in the southwestern United States. Grey Owl said his mother was Katherine Cochise of the Apache, Jicarilla band. He further said that both parents had been part of the Wild Bill Hickok Western show that toured England. Grey Owl claimed to have been born in 1888 in Hermosillo, Mexico, while his parents were performing there.[43]

Little of this account was factual.

In his articles, books, and films, Grey Owl promoted the ideas of environmentalism and nature conservation. In the 1930s, he wrote many articles for the Canadian Forestry Association (CFA) publication Forests and Outdoors, including the following:

His article, "A Description of the Fall Activities of Beaver, with some remarks on Conservation", was collected in Harper Cory's book Grey Owl and the Beaver (London: Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd, 1935).

In 1935–36 and 1937–38, Grey Owl toured Canada and England (including Hastings) to promote his books and lecture about conservation. His popularity attracted large, interested audiences, as Pilgrims in the Wild at one point was selling 5,000 copies a month.[22] Grey Owl appeared in traditional Ojibwa clothing as part of his First Nations identity. Although his aunts recognized him at his 1935 appearance in Hastings, they did not talk about his British origins until 1937. In his later tour, Grey Owl was invited to the court, where he made a presentation to King George VI of the United Kingdom and princesses Elizabeth and Margaret.

Between 1936 and his death he was informally visited at his base by the then Governor-General, Lord Tweedsmuir, an admirer of Grey Owl's writings on wildlife, an event photographed by Shuldham Redfern.[44]

During a publication tour of Canada, Grey Owl met Yvonne Perrier, a French Canadian woman. In November 1936 they married.

Alcohol use

Following his return from service in World War I, Grey Owl's use of alcohol increased, and it was not unusual for him to appear drunk in public.[45] On the ship back to Canada from his 1935 British tour, it was noted that he “drank heavily, ate only onions and was noticeably ill."[46] Excessive alcohol consumption compromised Grey Owl's position with the Dominion Parks Branch in Ottawa. Grey Owl was supposed to meet a group of important governmental officials at the studio of Yousuf Karsh, who had organized a dinner in Grey Owl's honor. However, as the dinner began Grey Owl was absent. Karsh later found him “raising a drunken row in the bar.”[47] This public display of a Parks Branch employee drunk in public caused James Harkin to have to defend Grey Owl's position within Parks Branch to the Assistant Deputy Minister Roy A. Gibson.[48] His consumption of alcohol at Prince Albert National Park created more friction between himself and Parks Branch as he was seen to “indulge too freely in liquor.”[45]

Death

The tours were fatiguing for him and his years of alcoholism weakened him.[23] In April 1938, he returned to Beaver Lodge, his cabin at Ajawaan Lake. Five days later, he was found unconscious on the floor of the cabin. Although taken to Prince Albert hospital for treatment, he died of pneumonia on April 13, 1938. He was buried near his cabin.

His first wife Angele proved her marriage and, although she had not seen him for several years, inherited most of his estate.[23] After their deaths, Anahareo and Shirley Dawn (died June 3, 1984) in turn were buried at Ajawaan Lake.

Marriages and families

Belaney had relationships with at least five women.[49] He deserted his first wife and child, later committing bigamy by marrying Constance Holmes in England. He had a daughter with his first and third wives, and was known to have fathered a boy as well.

Women in Belaney's life:

Exposure

Doubts about Grey Owl's First Nation identity had been circulating and stories were published immediately after his death. The North Bay Nugget newspaper ran the first exposé the day of his death, a story which they had been holding for three years.[49] This was followed up by international news organisations, such as The Times. His publisher Lovat Dickson tried to prove Belaney's claimed identity, but had to admit that his friend had lied to him. His popularity and support for his causes led The Ottawa Citizen to conclude, "Of course, the value of his work is not jeopardized. His attainments as a writer and naturalist will survive." This opinion was widely shared in the UK national press.[49]

While his writings showed his deep knowledge and concern about the environment, Belaney's account of his origins as "Grey Owl" was fictional. The consequences of the revelation were dramatic. Publishers immediately ceased producing his books under the name Grey Owl. In some cases his books were withdrawn from publication. This in turn affected the conservation causes with which Belaney had been associated, resulting in a decrease in donations to them.

Conservationist views

Initially Grey Owl's efforts and conservation were focused towards the beaver up North; however, with the publication of The Men of the Last Frontier, his conservation efforts came to include all wild animals.[50] While he had at one time been a fur trapper, he came to believe that “the trap, the rifle, and poison” would some day result in “the Dwellers in the forest to come to an end too.”[50] He expresses in Pilgrims of the Wild how our rush to exploit natural resources for commercial value overlooks “the capabilities and possibilities of the wild creatures involved in it.”[51] It was this “commodification of all living things that was responsible for the destruction from the beaver.”[52] While he was against the commodification of wild animals, his theory was not for the preservation of all living things, but for the conservation of them. Grey Owl expressed that if there were "temporary at least" protection for fur bearing animals, then we would "see the almost human response to kindness" from animals.[50] He expresses the conception of people to place themselves outside of nature as one of the problems, and instead he called for people to remember “that you belong to nature, and not it to you.”[52] His publication of Men of the Last Frontier was first called The Vanishing Frontier, and subsequently named Men of the Last Frontier by the publishers, which he felt "missed the entire point of the book" as he “spoke of nature, not men.”[53] The changing of the title exemplified for him the conception of people “that man governs the powers of nature.”[53]

Posthumous recognition

Numerous books about Grey Owl have been published, including:

In 1972 the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) produced a documentary special on Grey Owl. It was directed by Nancy Ryley.

In 1999, the film Grey Owl was released. It was directed by Richard Attenborough and starred Pierce Brosnan. The film received mixed reviews and received no theatrical release in the United States. As childen, Attenborough and his younger brother David had seen Grey Owl speak at the London Palladium theatre. The younger Attenborough later became a naturalist. In a 1999 interview, Richard Attenborough mentioned that they were both very affected by seeing Grey Owl, perhaps to the point of influencing their future career paths.

On the 100th anniversary of Grey Owl's birth, the Grey Owl Society of Hastings arranged planting of a Canadian red maple tree in his honor in the grounds of the William Parker School, the successor to the Hastings Grammar School. In June 1997, the mayor of Hastings and the borough's Member of Parliament (Michael Foster) unveiled a plaque in his honor on the house at 32 St. James Road where he was born.[54]

The ranger station at Hastings Country Park, 4 miles to the east of Hastings, also has a commemorative plaque to Grey Owl. A full-size replica of his Canadian lakeside cabin is in Hastings Museum at Summerfields. An exhibition of memorabilia and a commemorative plaque are at the house at 36 St. Mary's Terrace where he lived with his grandmother and aunts.[54]

Parks Canada has restored Grey Owl's cabin and established a wildlife sanctuary at Lake Anaabe.

In September 2004, hip-hop activist Raoul Juneja (aka Deejay Ra) launched a 'Grey Owl' Birthday Recognition Campaign. He incorporated Grey Owl titles into his 'Hip-Hop Literacy' project and campaigned on Canadian community TV for national recognition of Grey Owl's birthday. He was the first author to teach Native rights at Harvard University. In 2005, the birthday recognition campaign led to Key Porter Books re-publishing Grey Owl's classic Tales from an Empty Cabin. It also inspired a segment of a show on BookTelevision featuring DJ Ra and Lord Attenborough discussing Grey Owl's legacy.

Grey Owl's books

A long story from Tales of an Empty Cabin was published separately in 1937 as a small volume:

Collected editions

Grey Owl's first three books, The Men of the Last Frontier, Pilgrims of the Wild and Sajo and her Beaver People, have been collected and reprinted as Grey Owl: Three Complete and Unabridged Canadian Classics (2001: ISBN 1-55209-590-8). Excerpts from all four of his books were collected in The Book of Grey Owl: Selected Wildlife Stories (1938; 1989 reprint: ISBN 0-7715-9293-0).

Translations

Seidzo ja tema kobraste seiklused (The adventures of Sajo and her Beaver people.)Translation into Estonian by E. Heinaste, Tallinn, 1967.

See also

References

  1. ↑ John Sugden, review of Donald B. Smith, From the Land of Shadows: The Making of Grey Owl, American Indian Quarterly, Summer 1991, accessed 4 Feb 2010
  2. ↑ Grey Owl, Pilgrims of the Wild, (Toronto: Dundurn Press, 2010), 15.
  3. ↑ Donald B. Smith, From the Land of Shadows: the Making of Grey Owl, (Saskatoon: Western Prairie Books, 1990), 92
  4. ↑ Tina Loo, States of Nature: Conserving Canada's Wildlife in the Twentieth Century, (Vancouver: UBC Press ,2006), 113.
  5. ↑ J. Hayman, "Grey Owl's Wild Goose Chase", History Today 44.1 (1994): 43
  6. ↑ Jane Billinghurst. The Many Faces of Archie Belaney, Grey Owl, Vancouver: Grey Stone Books Douglas and McIntyre Publishing Group, 1999, p. 5
  7. ↑ Donald B. Smith. From the Land of Shadows: the Making of Grey Owl, Saskatchewan: Western Producer Prairie Books, 1990, p. 8
  8. ↑ Billinghurst, Ibid. 5, 6
  9. ↑ 1861, 1891, 1901, 1911 census
  10. ↑ Donald B. Smith. From the Land of Shadows the Making of Grey Owl, Saskatchewan: Western Producer Prairie Books, 1990, p. 8
  11. ↑ Donald B Smith. From the Land of the Shadows. p. 19
  12. ↑ Lovat Dickson, Half- Breed: The Story of Grey Owl, London: Peter Davis, 1939, p.47
  13. ↑ Donald B Smith. From the Land of the Shadows., p. 21
  14. ↑ Smith, Ibid.
  15. ↑ Smith, Ibid, p. 23
  16. ↑ Smith, op cit.
  17. ↑ Smith, Donald B. (1990). From the Land of Shadows: The Making of Grey Owl. Saskatoon: Prairie Books. p. 35.
  18. ↑ Smith, Donald B. (1990). From the Land of Shadows: The Making of Grey Owl. Saskatoon: Prairie Books. p. 36.
  19. ↑ Smith, Donald B. (1990). From the Land of Shadows: The Making of Grey Owl. Saskatoon: Prairie Books. p. 39.
  20. 1 2 Smith, Donald B. (1990). From the Land of Shadows: The Making of Grey Owl. Saskatoon: Prairie Books. p. 42.
  21. ↑ Smith, Donald B. (1990). From the Land of Shadows: The Making of Grey Owl. Saskatoon: Prairie Books. p. 43.
  22. 1 2 John Sugden, review of Donald B. Smith, From the Land of Shadows: The Making of Grey Owl, American Indian Quarterly, Summer 1991, accessed 4 Feb 2010
  23. 1 2 3 "Archibald Stansfeld Belaney Biography – (1888–1938)", JRank, accessed 4 Feb 2010
  24. 1 2 Native American Women: A Biographical Dictionary, ed. Gretchen M. Bataille & Laurie Lisa, p. 12
  25. ↑ Braz, Albert. “St. Archie of the Wild. Grey Owl's Account of His 'Natural' Conversion,” in Other Selves: Animals in the Canadian Literary Imagination. ed. Janice Fiamengo, 206–226. Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press, 2007
  26. 1 2 3 Owl, Grey. Pilgrims of the Wild. 1934. Toronto: Dundurn Press, 2010, pg. 27–28.
  27. ↑ Owl, Grey. Pilgrims of the Wild. 1934. Toronto: Dundurn Press, 2010, pg. 33.
  28. ↑ Braz, Albert. “St. Archie of the Wild. Grey Owl's Account of His 'Natural' Conversion,” in Other Selves: Animals in the Canadian Literary Imagination. ed. Janice Fiamengo, 206–226. Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press, 2007, pg. 212.
  29. ↑ Loo, Tina. States of Nature: Conserving Canada's Wildlife in the Twentieth Century. Vancouver: UBC Press, 2006, pg. 111.
  30. ↑ Owl, Grey. The Men of the Last Frontier. Toronto: Dundurn Press, 2011, pg. vii.
  31. ↑ Owl, Grey. The Men of the Last Frontier. Toronto: Dundurn Press, 2011, pg. 151.
  32. ↑ Owl, Grey. The Men of the Last Frontier. Toronto: Dundurn Press, 2011, pg. 144.
  33. ↑ Braz, Albert. “St. Archie of the Wild. Grey Owl's Account of His 'Natural' Conversion,” in Other Selves: Animals in the Canadian Literary Imagination. ed. Janice Fiamengo, 206–226. Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press, 2007, pg. 206.
  34. ↑ Braz, Albert. “St. Archie of the Wild. Grey Owl's Account of His 'Natural' Conversion,” in Other Selves: Animals in the Canadian Literary Imagination. ed. Janice Fiamengo, 206–226. Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press, 2007, pg. 207.
  35. ↑ Owl, Grey. The Men of the Last Frontier. Toronto: Dundurn Press, 2011, pg. 172.
  36. ↑ Owl, Grey. The Men of the Last Frontier. Toronto: Dundurn Press, 2011, pg. 174.
  37. 1 2 Donald B. Smith, From the Land of Shadows: the Making of Grey Owl, (Saskatoon: Western Prairie Books, 1990), 89.
  38. ↑ Donald B. Smith, From the Land of Shadows: the Making of Grey Owl, (Saskatoon: Western Prairie Books, 1990), 101.
  39. ↑ Donald B. Smith, From the Land of Shadows: the Making of Grey Owl, (Saskatoon: Western Prairie Books, 1990), 91.
  40. ↑ Lovat Dickson, “Wilderness Man: The Strange Story of Grey Owl”, (Toronto: The Macmillan Company of Canada, 1973), 223.
  41. 1 2 3 Lovat Dickson, “Wilderness Man: The Strange Story of Grey Owl”, (Toronto: The Macmillan Company of Canada, 1973), 224.
  42. ↑ Donald B. Smith, From the Land of Shadows: the Making of Grey Owl, (Saskatoon: Western Prairie Books, 1990), 108.
  43. ↑ Lovat Dickson. Wilderness Man: The Strange Story of Grey Owl, New York: Atheneum, 1973, p. 3
  44. ↑ Smith, Janet Adam (1979). John Buchan and His World. Thames & Hudson. p. 105. ISBN 0-500-13067-1.
  45. 1 2 Dane Lanken, “The Vision of Grey Owl,” Canadian Geographic 119 (1999).
  46. ↑ Peter Unwin, “The Fabulations of Grey Owl,” Canada's History 79, no. 2 (April 1999).
  47. ↑ Donald B. Smith, From the Land of Shadows: the Making of Grey Owl, (Saskatoon: Western Prairie Books, 1990), 156.
  48. ↑ Donald B. Smith, From the Land of Shadows: the Making of Grey Owl, (Saskatoon: Western Prairie Books, 1990), 157.
  49. 1 2 3 4 "Grey Owl", The Canadian Encyclopedia, accessed 4 Feb 2010
  50. 1 2 3 Dickson, Lovat (1973). Wilderness Man: The Strange Story of Grey Owl. Toronto: The Macmillan Company of Canada. p. 219.
  51. ↑ Gnarowski, Michael (2010). Pilgrims of the Wild. Toronto, Canada: Dundurn. p. 27.
  52. 1 2 Loo, Tina (2006). States of Nature: Conserving Canada's Wildlife in the Twentieth Century. Vancouver, Canada: UBC Press. p. 113.
  53. 1 2 Dickson, Lovat (1973). Wilderness Man: The Strange Story of Grey Owl. Toronto: The Macmillan Company of Canada. p. 218.
  54. 1 2 Grey Owl's Hastings, 1066.net, accessed 19 Apr 2009

Further reading

External links

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