Battle of Antioch (218)

Battle of Antioch

A 20th Century map of Roman Syria with the ancient sites of Antioch, Emesa, and Zeugma shown, among others
Date8 June 218
Locationnear Antioch, Syria (now Turkey)
Result Elagabalus victory
Belligerents
Macrinus Elagabalus
Commanders and leaders
Macrinus Gannys
Strength
elements of Praetorian Guard Legio III Gallica
Legio II Parthica
Other rebels

The Battle of Antioch (8 June 218) was fought between the Roman armies of the Emperor Macrinus and his contender Elagabalus, whose troops were commanded by General Gannys. Gannys' victory over Macrinus led to the downfall of the emperor and his replacement by Elagabalus. After a short reign of four years, Elagabalus was also killed, after which a short period of stability followed.

The battle itself is not particularity notable, and even the ancient scholars, Dio and Herodian, only briefly consider the battle itself. However, it is historically notable as the ultimate action in a series of events that led the Army to select the emperor over the objections of the Senate. This further eroded one of the few official powers remaining in the Senate.

Background

Death of Caracalla and rise of Macrinus

Roman denarius depicting Macrinus and his son, Diadumenianus

Macrinus' predecessor Caracalla was murdered by Justin Martialus, a soldier who had been incensed for being declined the rank of centurion, while traveling to visit a temple, during a period of war with the Parthians.[1][2] Macrinus, a Praetorian prefect at the time, was involved in the assassination.[3][4] Macrinus may have plotted against Caracalla because of a fear for his own life.[5][6][7] The basis for this suggestion comes from a story mentioned by Herodian and supported by Gibbons. The narrative goes that Macrinus would often read dispatches sent to Caracalla for him, on one such occasion a dispatch was delivered from Materianus, a friend of Caracalla. This dispatch detailed a prophecy from the oracle at Delphi, or fabricated as such, that suggested that Macrinus was plotting against Caracalla and that Macrinus was be destined to become the next emperor of Rome.[2][8]

In the immediate aftermath of Caracalla's death, Adventus was selected to serve as emperor, but he declined the position due to his old age.[9][10] The army then chose Macrinus; they had no feelings of 'love or esteem' towards him, but there was no one else competing for the position.[10] The army proclaiming Macrinus as emperor three days after the death of Caracalla, and named him Augustus.[11][12]

The results were applauded by the Senate at first, who were glad to be rid of the former emperor. But, tradition held that the emperor could only be selected from among the Senate, causing some concern. Macrinus was a member of the equestrian class, the lower of the two aristocratic classes, which led to further concern. This led the Senate to severely scrutinize his every action.[13] The Senate, however, was powerless to do anything about it, the military was at the time so concentrated at Edessa that there was no force anywhere else in the Empire that could contest the action.[7]

As the new emperor, Macrinus had to deal with the major threat of the Parthians, with whom Rome were currently at war. An indecisive battle at Nisibis is cited as a reason for the opening of peace negotiations.[14] Negotiations may have been favourable for both sides; Rome was being threatened by Armenia and Dacia, and the Parthians were far from home and low on supplies.[15] The settlement, however, was viewed by many people as being unfavourable to Rome; Dio quotes that a payout of 200 million Sesterces was paid to the Parthians in exchange for peace.[16][17] The sum was called into question by Scott due to its sheer enormity and because Dio is not known for being unreliable when discussing finances.[18] Regardless, the general opinion on the negotiations was one of contempt, with Macrinus being accused of being cowardly and weak.[16][19]

With the peace treaty concluded, Macrinus took measures to control the expenditures of Rome, reinstating the fiscal policies of Septimius Severus. This included a reduction in pay and benefits for Legionnaires, which was not popular with the Army who had placed him in command. These policies would only apply to new recruits,[20][21] but the enlisted soldiers saw this as setting precedent for further changes to the fiscal policies brought in by Caracalla.[21] The sullen behaviour of new recruits, who entered service committing to greater labour for less payment, only furthered discontent among the soldiers. Gibbon suggests that from here only a small spark would be required to ignite a rebellion.[21]

Rise of Elagabalus

An ancient Roman denarius depicting Elagabalus

Following the death of Caracalla, Macrinus allowed Caracalla's mother, Julia Domna, and his aunt Julia Maesa, to settle in their home town of Emesa. Julia Domna who was at Antioch at the time of Caracalla's death attempted suicide, eventually succeeding by starving herself.[22][23] Julia Maesa, however, returned to Emesa with her finances intact.

Julia's suspicions regarding Macrinus' involvement in the death of Caracalla led to her championing the case of her grandson, Elagabalus, as the rightful emperor.[24][25] At the time Elagabalus was the chief priest of the Phoenician god Elagabal in Emesa. The soldiers stationed there frequently visited the temple where Elagabalus was chief priest, and enjoyed watching him perform rituals and ceremonies there.[26] On one such occasion Julia Maesa took the opportunity to inform the soldiers, either truthfully or not, that Elagabalus was Caracalla's son.[26][27] Simultaneously, she may have seen the opportunity to use her family's wealth and prestige to set in motion her plot.[24][26]

On the night of 15 May 218, Elagabalus was taken, by either Julia Maesa[28] or Gannys,[29] to the camp of the Legio III Gallica at Raphanaea and presented to the soldiers stationed there.[30] Some accounts claim that upon being presented to them, that Elagabalus was immediately hailed Antoninus, after Caracalla.[31] Enhanced by Julia's monetary contributions, the legion proclaimed Elagabalus emperor on 16 May 218.[26][32][33]

Macrinus might have been able to stop the rebellion in this early stage, but could not decide on a course of action and remained at Antioch.[34]

Rebellion

Now that Elagabalus had the support of an entire legion, other legionnaires, prompted by discontent over pay, moved to join Elagabalus' ranks as well. In response, Macrinus sent a cavalry force led under the command of Ulpinus Julianus to regain control of the rebels. Instead, the cavalry killed Ulpinus and joined Elagabalus.[35][36]

Following these events, Macrinus traveled to Apamea to ensure the loyalty of Legio II Parthica before setting off to march against Emesa.[32] Macrinus appointed his son Diadumenian the position of Imperator, and promised the soldiers 20,000 Sesterces each, with 4,000 of these to be paid on the spot.[37] Macrinus also hosted a dinner for the residents of Apamea in honour of Diadumenian.[37] At the dinner, Macrinus was presented with the head of Ulpinus Julianus who had been killed by his defecting soldiers.[38] This forced Macrinus to leave, according to Dio in retreat, while Downey asserts that Macrinus left in order to launch an attack.[32][39]

Macrinus' and Elagabalus' troops met somewhere near the border of Syria Coele and Syria Phoenice, Macrinus' efforts here, however, were in vain and the whole legion defected to the challenger, forcing him to retire to Antioch.[32] This allowed Elagabus to take the offensive and march on Antioch.[32]

Senatorial response

During and after Caracalla's reign the position of the Senate had been considerably weakened. The balance of power had been transferred from the Senate to the army; as such the emperor of Rome was decided by the soldier while the Senate existed solely to officiate state affairs without any real authority.[40] Thus both Macrinus and later Elagabalus would attempt to secure the favour of the military while generally disregarding the opinion of the Senate. Macrinus, now in dire circumstances, would have no choice but to turn to the Senate. Thus, while at Antioch, Macrinus would make one more attempt at securing support, this time from Rome. However, a combination of distrust from the Senate, the impeding approach of Elagabalus's legions and insufficient funds meant that Macrinus would have to face the approaching Elagabalus with only his Praetorian Guard. Had time been available, Marius Maximus, prefect of Rome, would have been able to muster troops and send reinforcements to Macrinus.[41] Despite all of this, the Senate would still declare war against the usurper and his family, regardless of their relative powerlessness.[42][43]

Battle

The battle took place on 8 June 218 at a defile outside of a village, believed to be Immae, approximately twenty-four miles or so by road between Antioch and Beroea.[32] Herodian challenges this assertion, suggesting that the battle took place closer to the border at Syria Coele and Syria Phoenice, possibly near Emesa.[44] Other sources either agree with Dio that the battle took place near Antioch, with one source, Downey, suggesting that both battles occurred separately or make no claim as to where the battle occurred.[32][45][46]

The armies of Elagabalus, led by Gannys, a novice but determined commander, met with the Praetorian Guard of Macrinus in a narrowly fought pitched battle.[43][47] Prior to battle Macrinus had the Praetorian Guard set aside their scaled armour breastplates and grooved shields in favour of lighter oval shields, thus making them lighter and more manoeuvrable and also negating the advantage of light Parthian lancers (lanciarii).[48] Despite the numerical superiority of Gannys' army, at least two full legions, faced with what levies Macrinus was able to accrue, the engagement had begun in Macrinus' favour with the soldiers led by Gannys turning to flee after the Praetorian Guards had managed to break through the enemy line.[43][49] At some point during the retreat, Julia Maesa and Soaemias Bassiana (Elagabalus' mother) joined the fray rallying the forces while Gannys, who was on horseback, charged headlong at the enemy thus ending the retreat and renewing the assault.[43][49][50] At this point Macrinus, fearing defeat, fled back to the city of Antioch.[32][51][52] Had Macrinus remained in battle, it is plausible that he might have won the battle and thus secured his position as emperor.[32][43]

Aftermath

Having been defeated in battle, Macrinus sent his son, along with attendants, to Artabanus V of Parthia, while he himself returned to Antioch proclaiming victory over Elagabalus in battle.[53][54] News of Macrinus' defeat broke out and many civilians in the city and on the roads were slain because they had favoured Macrinus. Macrinus shaved off his beard and hair to disguise himself as a member of the military police, and fled the city at night on horseback.[32][55] He reached Cilicia along with a few companions, while masquerading as a military courier he successfully secured a carriage which he subsequently drove to Eribolon, near Nicomedia, before setting sail for Chalcedon.[32][56][57]

In Chalcedon, Macrinus was arrested after revealing his whereabouts by making a request for money to a Procurator.[58] While being transported back to Antioch, "like the commonest criminal" according to Dio, he injured himself in an escape attempt. He was beheaded in Cappadocia by the centurion Marcianus Taurus.[59] His body remained unburied until Elagabalus had the chance to inspect it. His son Diadumenian faced a similar fate after being captured at Zeugma by the centurion Cladius Pollio.[60] Dio concludes that Macrinus might have been praised for his deeds, rather than ridiculed and later slain, had he shown temperance and passed the title of emperor onto somebody else. He further concludes that Macrinus was the master of his own demise which he felt was truly deserved.[61]

In the interim period between the battle and the capture of Macrinus, Elagabalus declared himself emperor with the support of the military though he would not return to Rome for several months.[62] This news, upon reaching Rome, was met with dismay by both the Senate and the Roman people, though both submitted through necessity.[62][63] His reputation would not improve during his reign; his worship of Elagabal and the sacrilegious performance of religious rituals would generate anger among the Romans.[64] In an attempt to prevent disaster, his cousin would be elevated to the position of caesar, co-ruler.[65] This appeased the Romans for a time, however, envy caused further problems culminating in the death of Elagabalus at the hands of the Praetorian Guard. This was followed by a short period of stability for Rome.[66][67]

Citations

  1. ↑ Dio, Cassius. Dio's Roman History. pp. 349, 79.5.4.
  2. 1 2 Gibbon, Edward (1776). The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Volume 1. pp. 176–177.
  3. ↑ Mennen, Inge (2012). Impact of Empire, Volume 12: Power and Status in the Roman Empire, AD 193-284. Brill Academic Publisher. p. 162.
  4. ↑ Goldsworthy, Adrian (2009). How Rome Fell. Yale University Press. p. 74.
  5. ↑ Herodian of Antioch. History of the Roman Empire. pp. 100–101, 4.12.2 and 4.12.8.
  6. ↑ Dio, Cassius. Dio's Roman History. pp. 349, 79.5 and 79.5.2.
  7. 1 2 Goldsworthy, Adrian (2009). How Rome Fell. Yale University Press. p. 75.
  8. ↑ Herodian of Antioch. History of the Roman Empire. pp. 101, 4.12.5, 4.12.7 and 4.12.8.
  9. ↑ Herodian of Antioch. History of the Empire. pp. 102, 4.14.2.
  10. 1 2 Gibbon, Edward (1776). The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Volume 1. p. 178.
  11. ↑ Dio, Cassius. Roman History. pp. 363, 79.11.4.
  12. ↑ Dunstan, William E. (2010). Ancient Rome. Rowman and Littlefield Publishers. p. 213.
  13. ↑ Gibbon, Edward (1776). The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Volume 1. pp. 179–180.
  14. ↑ Scott, Andrew (2008). Change and Discontinuity Within the Severan Dynasty: The Case of Macrinus. p. 66. ISBN 0-549-89041-6.
  15. ↑ Scott, Andrew (2008). Change and Discontinuity Within the Severan Dynasty: The Case of Macrinus. p. 108. ISBN 0-549-89041-6.
  16. 1 2 Dio, Cassius. Roman History. pp. 403, 79.27.1 and 79.27.2.
  17. ↑ Scott, Andrew (2008). Change and Discontinuity Within the Severan Dynasty: The Case of Macrinus. p. 109. ISBN 0-549-89041-6.
  18. ↑ Scott, Andrew (2008). Change and Discontinuity Within the Severan Dynasty: The Case of Macrinus. p. 110. ISBN 0-549-89041-6.
  19. ↑ Scott, Andrew (2008). Change and Discontinuity Within the Severan Dynasty: The Case of Macrinus. p. 104. ISBN 0-549-89041-6.
  20. ↑ Dio, Cassius. Roman History. pp. 405–407, 79.28.2.
  21. 1 2 3 Gibbon, Edward (1776). The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Volume 1. p. 181.
  22. ↑ Dio, Cassius. Dio's Roman History. pp. 395, 79.23.6.
  23. ↑ Goldsworthy, Adrian (2009). How Rome Fell. Yale University Press. p. 76.
  24. 1 2 Herodian of Antioch. History of the Roman Empire. pp. 111, 5.3.11.
  25. ↑ Goldsworthy, Adrian (2009). How Rome Fell. Yale University Press. pp. 76–77.
  26. 1 2 3 4 Gibbon, Edward (1776). The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Volume 1. p. 182.
  27. ↑ Herodian of Antioch. History of the Roman Empire. pp. 110–111, 5.3.4, 5.3.6 and 5.3.9.
  28. ↑ Herodian of Antioch. History of the Empire. pp. 111 5.3.10.
  29. ↑ Dio, Cassius. Roman History. pp. 411, 79.33.3.
  30. ↑ Scott, Andrew (2008). Change and Discontinuity Within the Severan Dynasty: The Case of Macrinus. p. 151. ISBN 0-549-89041-6.
  31. ↑ Scott, Andrew (2008). Change of Discontinuity Within the Severan Dynasty: The Case of Macrinus. pp. 145–146, 151. ISBN 0-549-89041-6.
  32. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Downey, Glanville (1961). A History of Antioch in Syria: From Seleucus to the Arab Conquest. Literary Licensing, LLC. pp. 249–250. ISBN 1-258-48665-2.
  33. ↑ Dio, Cassius. Roman History. pp. 411, 79.31.3
  34. ↑ Gibbon, Edward (1776). The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Volume 1. p. 183.
  35. ↑ Dio, Cassius. Roman History. pp. 413, 79.32.4.
  36. ↑ Mennen, Inge (2011). Impact of Empire, Volume 12: Power and Status in the Roman Empire, AD 193-284. Brill Academic Publishers. pp. 145–146.
  37. 1 2 Dio, Cassius. Roman History. pp. 417, 79.34.3.
  38. ↑ Dio, Cassius. Roman History. pp. 417, 79.34.4.
  39. ↑ Dio, Cassius. Dio's Roman History. pp. 417–419, 79.34.5.
  40. ↑ Scott, Andrew (2008). Change and Discontinuity within the Severan Dynasty: The Case of Macrinus. p. 45. ISBN 0-549-89041-6.
  41. ↑ Scott, Andrew (2008). Change and Discontinuity Within the Severan Dynasty: The Case of Macrinus. pp. 154–155. ISBN 0-549-89041-6.
  42. ↑ Dio, Cassius. Dio's Roman History. pp. 79.38.4.
  43. 1 2 3 4 5 Gibbon, Edward (1776). The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Volume 1. p. 184.
  44. ↑ Herodian of Antioch. History of the Empire. pp. 115, 5.4.6.
  45. ↑ Scott, Andrew (2008). Change and Discontinuity Within the Severan Dynasty: The Case of Macrinus. p. 68. ISBN 0-549-89041-6.
  46. ↑ Historia Augusta. pp. Macrinus 10.3.
  47. ↑ Dio, Cassius. Roman History. pp. 427, 79.38.3.
  48. ↑ Dio, Cassius. Roman History. pp. 425, 79.37.4.
  49. 1 2 Goldsworthy, Adrian (2009). How Rome Fell. Yale University Press. pp. 78–79.
  50. ↑ Dio, Cassius. Roman History. pp. 427–429, 79.38.4.
  51. ↑ Dio, Cassius. Roman History. pp. 429, 79.38.4.
  52. ↑ Herodian of Antioch. History of the Empire. pp. 113, 5.4.9.
  53. ↑ Dio, Cassius. Roman History. pp. 429, 79.39.1.
  54. ↑ Scott, Andrew (2008). Change and Discontinuity within the Severan Dynasty: The Case of Macrinus. pp. 155–156. ISBN 0-549-89041-6.
  55. ↑ Dio, Cassius. Roman History. pp. 429, 79.38.2.
  56. ↑ Dio, Cassius. Roman History. pp. 429, 79.39.2 and 79.39.3.
  57. ↑ Herodian of Antioch. The History of the Empire. pp. 113, 5.4.11.
  58. ↑ Dio, Cassius. Roman History. pp. 431, 79.39.5.
  59. ↑ Dio, Cassius. Roman History. pp. 431, 79.39.6, 79.40.1 and 79.40.2.
  60. ↑ Dio, Cassius. Roman History. pp. 431, 79.40.5.
  61. ↑ Dio, Cassius. Roman History. pp. 433–435, 79.41.2 and 79.41.3.
  62. 1 2 Dio, Cassius. Roman History. pp. 453, 80.3.1 and 80.3.2.
  63. ↑ Herodian of Antioch. History of the Roman Empire. pp. 114, 5.5.2.
  64. ↑ Herodian of Antioch. History of the Roman Empire. pp. 120, 5.8.1.
  65. ↑ Herodian of Antioch. History of the Roman Empire. pp. 119, 5.7.2–5.7.4.
  66. ↑ Herodian of Antioch. History of the Roman Empire. pp. 121–122, 5.8.7–5.8.9.
  67. ↑ Dio, Cassius. Dio's Roman History. pp. 477–479, 80.20.2.

References

External links

Coordinates: 36°12′00″N 36°09′00″E / 36.2000°N 36.1500°E / 36.2000; 36.1500

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