Battle of Fort Pillow

Battle of Fort Pillow
Part of the American Civil War

Caption in Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper, May 7, 1864- "The war in Tennessee: Confederate massacre of black Union troops after the surrender at Fort Pillow, April 12, 1864"
DateApril 12, 1864 (1864-04-12)
LocationLauderdale County, Tennessee
Result Confederate victory
Belligerents
 United States (Union)  Confederate States
Commanders and leaders
Lionel F. Booth †
William F. Bradford †		 Nathan Bedford Forrest
James R. Chalmers
Units involved
Fort Pillow garrison
2nd U.S. Artillery (C)
6th U.S. Artillery (C)
14th Tenn Cavalry U.S.		 1st Division, Forrest's Cavalry Corps
Strength
600 1,500–2,500
Casualties and losses
182 killed, drowned and missing[1] 100 total
14 killed
86 wounded [2]

The Battle of Fort Pillow, also known as the Fort Pillow massacre, was fought on April 12, 1864, at Fort Pillow on the Mississippi River in Henning, Tennessee, during the American Civil War. The battle ended with a massacre of Union troops (most of them African American soldiers) attempting to surrender, by soldiers under the command of Confederate Major General Nathan Bedford Forrest. Military historian David J. Eicher concluded, "Fort Pillow marked one of the bleakest, saddest events of American military history."[2]

Background

The usage of black men as U.S. soldiers by the Union, combined with Abraham Lincoln's issuing of the Emancipation Proclamation, profoundly angered the Confederacy,[3] with the Confederates calling it uncivilized.[4] In response the Confederacy in May 1863 passed a law demanding that black U.S. soldiers captured while fighting against the Confederacy would be tried as slave insurrectionists in civil courts; a capital offense with automatic sentence of death.[5] The law stated that the Confederates should commit "full and ample retaliation" against such persons.[6]

Fort Pillow, on the Mississippi River 40 mi (64 km) north of Memphis, was built by Confederate Brigadier General Gideon Johnson Pillow in early 1862 and was used by both sides during the war. With the fall of New Madrid and Island No. 10 to Union forces, Confederate troops evacuated Fort Pillow on June 4, in order to avoid being cut off from the rest of the Confederate army. Union forces occupied Fort Pillow on June 6 and used it to protect the river approach to Memphis.

The fort stood on a high bluff and was protected by three lines of entrenchments arranged in a semicircle, with a protective parapet 4 ft (1.2 m) thick and 6 to 8 ft (1.8 to 2.4 m) high surrounded by a ditch. (During the battle, this design proved to be a disadvantage to the defenders because they could not fire upon approaching troops without mounting the top of the parapet, which subjected them to enemy fire. Because of the width of the parapet, operators of the six artillery pieces of the fort found it difficult to depress their barrels enough to fire on the attackers once they got close.) A Union gunboat, the USS New Era, commanded by Captain James Marshall, was also available for the defense.[7]

On March 16, 1864, Major General Nathan Bedford Forrest launched a month-long cavalry raid with 7,000 troopers into western Tennessee and Kentucky. Their objectives were to capture Union prisoners and supplies and to demolish posts and fortifications from Paducah, Kentucky, south to Memphis. Forrest's Cavalry Corps, which he called "the Cavalry Department of West Tennessee and North Mississippi," consisted of the divisions led by Brig. Gens. James R. Chalmers (brigades of Brig. Gen. Robert V. Richardson and Colonel Robert M. McCulloch) and Abraham Buford (brigades of Cols. Tyree H. Bell and A. P. Thompson).

The first of the two significant engagements in the expedition was the Battle of Paducah on March 25, where Forrest's men did considerable damage to the town and its military supplies. Forrest had tried to bluff U.S. Col. Stephen G. Hicks into surrender, warning "... if I have to storm your works, you may expect no quarter.[8] Hicks rejected the demand, as he knew that the fort could not be easily taken.[8]

Numerous skirmishes occurred throughout the region in late March and early April. Needing supplies, Forrest planned to move on Fort Pillow with about 1,500 [9] to 2,500[10] men. (He had detached part of his command under Buford to strike Paducah again.) He wrote on April 4, "There is a Federal force of 500 or 600 at Fort Pillow, which I shall attend to in a day or two, as they have horses and supplies which we need."[11]

The Union garrison at Fort Pillow consisted of about 600 men, divided almost evenly between black and white troops. The black soldiers belonged to the 6th U.S. Regiment Colored Heavy Artillery and a section of the 2nd Colored Light Artillery (previously known as the Memphis Battery Light Artillery (African Descent)), under the overall command of Major Lionel F. Booth, who had been in the fort for only two weeks. Booth had been ordered to move his regiment from Memphis to Fort Pillow on March 28 to augment the cavalry, who had occupied the fort several weeks earlier. Many of the regiment were former slaves who understood the personal cost of a loss to the Confederates—at best an immediate return to slavery rather than being treated as a prisoner of war. They had heard that some Confederates threatened to kill any Union black troops they encountered. The white soldiers were predominantly new recruits from the 13th Tennessee Cavalry, a Union regiment from West Tennessee, commanded by Maj. William F. Bradford. Major Bradford's regiment was known as Bradford's Tennessee Cavalry Battalion and was organized as the 13th West Tennessee Cavalry (U.S.). Due to a mix-up in the Union records, it was later designated as 14th Tennessee Cavalry Regiment (U.S.).

Battle

Forrest arrived at Fort Pillow at 10:00 on April 12. By this time, Chalmers had already surrounded the fort. A stray bullet struck Forrest's horse, felling the general and bruising him. This would be the first of three horses he lost that day.[12] He deployed sharpshooters around the higher ground that overlooked the fort, bringing many of the occupants into their direct line of fire. Major Booth was killed by a sharpshooter's bullet to the chest and Bradford assumed command. By 11:00, the Confederates had captured two rows of barracks about 150 yd (140 m) from the southern end of the fort. The Union soldiers had failed to destroy these buildings before the Confederates occupied them and subjected the garrison to a murderous fire.

Rifle and artillery fire continued until 3:30, when Forrest sent a note demanding surrender: "The conduct of the officers and men garrisoning Fort Pillow has been such as to entitle them to being treated as prisoners of war. I demand the unconditional surrender of the entire garrison, promising that you shall be treated as prisoners of war. My men have just received a fresh supply of ammunition, and from their present position can easily assault and capture the fort. Should my demand be refused, I cannot be responsible for the fate of your command." Bradford replied, concealing his identity as he did not wish the Confederates to realize that Booth had been killed, requesting an hour for consideration.[13] Forrest, who believed that reinforcing troops would soon arrive by river, replied that he would only allow 20 minutes, and that "If at the expiration of that time the fort is not surrendered, I shall assault it."[14] Bradford refused this opportunity with a final reply: "I will not surrender." Forrest then ordered his bugler to sound the charge.

The Confederate assault was furious. While the sharpshooters maintained their fire into the fort, a first wave entered the ditch and stood while the second wave used their backs as stepping stones. These men then reached down and helped the first wave scramble up a ledge on the embankment. All of this proceeded flawlessly and with very little firing, except from the sharpshooters and around the flanks. Their fire against the New Era caused the sailors to button up their gun ports and hold their fire. As the sharpshooters were signaled to hold their fire, the men on the ledge went up and over the embankment, firing now for the first time into the massed defenders, who fought briefly, but then broke and ran to the landing at the foot of the bluff, where they had been told that the Union gunboat would cover their withdrawal by firing grapeshot and canister rounds. The gunboat did not fire a single shot because its gun ports were sealed, and there probably would have been more Union casualties than Confederate if they had fired. The fleeing soldiers were subjected to fire both from the rear and from the flank, from the soldiers who had been firing at the gunboat. Many were shot down. Others reached the river only to drown, or be picked off in the water by marksmen on the bluff.

Massacre

An 1885 color poster of the Fort Pillow Massacre designed to keep the memory of the atrocity alive.

Historians and official reports emphasize a deliberate massacre took place. Confederate sources say they kept firing in self defense. Survivors claimed that even though the Union troops surrendered, Forrest's men massacred them in cold blood. Surviving members of the garrison said that most of their men surrendered and threw down their arms, only to be shot or bayoneted by the attackers, who repeatedly shouted, "No quarter! No quarter!"[15] The Joint Committee On the Conduct of the War immediately investigated the incident and concluded that the Confederates shot most of the garrison after it had surrendered. A 2002 study by Albert Castel concluded that the Union forces were indiscriminately massacred after Fort Pillow "had ceased resisting or was incapable of resistance."[16] Historian Andrew Ward in 2005 reached the conclusion that an atrocity in the modern sense occurred at Fort Pillow, including the murders of fleeing black civilians, but that the event was not premeditated nor officially sanctioned by Confederate commanders.[17]

Recent histories generally concur that a massacre occurred. Historian Richard Fuchs, the author of An Unerring Fire, concludes, "The affair at Fort Pillow was simply an orgy of death, a mass lynching to satisfy the basest of conduct—intentional murder—for the vilest of reasons—racism and personal enmity."[18] Ward states, "Whether the massacre was premeditated or spontaneous does not address the more fundamental question of whether a massacre took place... it certainly did, in every dictionary sense of the word."[19] John Cimprich states, "The new paradigm in social attitudes and the fuller use of available evidence has favored a massacre interpretation.... Debate over the memory of this incident formed a part of sectional and racial conflicts for many years after the war, but the reinterpretation of the event during the last thirty years offers some hope that society can move beyond past intolerance."[20]

Lieutenant Daniel Van Horn of the 6th U.S. Heavy Artillery (Colored) stated in his official report, "There never was a surrender of the fort, both officers and men declaring they never would surrender or ask for quarter."[21] Another officer of the unit, however, and the only surviving officers of the 13th Tennessee Cavalry attested to the characterization that unarmed soldiers were killed in the act of surrendering. A Confederate sergeant, in a letter written home shortly after the battle, said that "the poor, deluded negroes would run up to our men, fall upon their knees, and with uplifted hand scream for mercy, but were ordered to their feet and then shot down."[22] This account is consistent with the relatively high comparative casualties sustained by race of the defenders. (See next section.)

Forrest's men insisted that the Union soldiers, although fleeing, kept their weapons and frequently turned to shoot, forcing the Confederates to keep firing in self-defense.[15] Their claim is consistent with the discovery of numerous Union rifles on the bluffs near the river.[23] The Union flag was still flying over the fort, which indicated that the force had not formally surrendered. A contemporary newspaper account from Jackson, Tennessee, states that "General Forrest begged them to surrender," but "not the first sign of surrender was ever given." Similar accounts were reported in both Southern and Northern newspapers at the time.[24]

Historian Allan Nevins wrote that although the interpretation of the facts had "provoked some disputation":

Northerners, however, saw only one side. They read headlines announcing "Attack on Fort Pillow—Indiscriminate Slaughter of the Prisoners—Shocking Scenes of Savagery; dispatches from Sherman's army declaring "there is a general gritting of teeth here"; reports from the Missouri Democrat detailing the "fiendishness" of rebel behavior; and editorials like that in the Chicago Tribune condemning the "murder" and "butchery."[25]

The New York Times reported on April 24:

The blacks and their officers were shot down, bayoneted and put to the sword in cold blood.... Out of four hundred negro soldiers only about twenty survive! At least three hundred of them were destroyed after the surrender! This is the statement of the rebel General Chalmers himself to our informant.[26]

Later, in his Memoirs, Ulysses S. Grant, who was not present at the battle, wrote of the battle:

Forrest, however, fell back rapidly, and attacked the troops at Fort Pillow, a station for the protection of the navigation of the Mississippi River. The garrison consisted of a regiment of colored troops, infantry, and a detachment of Tennessee cavalry. These troops fought bravely, but were overpowered. I will leave Forrest in his dispatches to tell what he did with them.

"The river was dyed," he [Forrest] says, "with the blood of the slaughtered for two hundred yards. The approximate loss was upward of five hundred killed, but few of the officers escaping. My loss was about twenty killed. It is hoped that these facts will demonstrate to the Northern people that negro soldiers cannot cope with Southerners." Subsequently, Forrest made a report in which he left out the part which shocks humanity to read.[27]

John Fisher, in his book They Rode with Forrest and Wheeler writes: "Grant refers here to two reports from Forrest to his superior officer, Leonidas Polk: (1) a hasty, exuberant report dated April 15, 1864, dashed off three days after the attack on Fort Pillow, describing the success of Forrest's recent operations in West Tennessee, and (2) a well-defined, detailed, and comprehensive report of the action at Fort Pillow only dated April 26."[28]

At the time of the massacre General Grant was no longer in Tennessee but had transferred to the east to command all Union troops.[29] General William Tecumseh Sherman, Commander of the Military Division of the Mississippi, which included Tennessee, wrote:

The massacre at Fort Pillow occurred April 12, 1864, and has been the subject of congressional inquiry.[30] No doubt Forrest's men acted like a set of barbarians, shooting down the helpless negro garrison after the fort was in their possession; but I am told that Forrest personally disclaims any active participation in the assault, and that he stopped the firing as soon as he could. I also take it for granted that Forrest did not lead the assault in person, and consequently that he was to the rear, out of sight if not of hearing at the time, and I was told by hundreds of our men, who were at various times prisoners in Forrest's possession, that he was usually very kind to them. He had a desperate set of fellows under him, and at that very time there is no doubt the feeling of the Southern people was fearfully savage on this very point of our making soldiers out of their late slaves, and Forrest may have shared the feeling.[31]

Aftermath

Casualty figures vary according to different sources. In 1908, Dyer gave the following statistics of Union casualties: 350 killed and mortally wounded, 60 wounded, 164 captured and missing, 574 aggregate.[32]

Confederate casualties were comparatively low (14 killed and 86 wounded) and Union casualties were high. Of the 585 to 605 Union men present, 277 to 297 were reported as dead. Jordan in the mid-20th century suggested the Union deaths were exaggerated.[23] Historians agree that defenders' casualties varied considerably according to race. Only 58 (around 20%) black soldiers were marched away as prisoners, whereas 168 (about 60%) of the white soldiers were taken prisoner. Not all of the prisoners who were shot were black; Major Bradford was apparently among those shot after he surrendered.[33] Confederate anger at the thought of black men fighting them, and their initial reluctance to surrender—many of the black troops believed they would only be killed if they surrendered in Union uniform—resulted in a tragedy.

The Confederates evacuated Fort Pillow that evening, so they gained little in the battle except a temporary disruption of Union operations. Union forces used the "Fort Pillow massacre" as a rallying cry in the following months. For many, it strengthened their resolve to see the war through to its conclusion.

On April 17, 1864, in the aftermath of Fort Pillow, General Grant ordered General Benjamin F. Butler, who was negotiating prisoner exchanges with the Confederacy, to demand that black prisoners had to be treated identically to whites in the exchange and treatment of prisoners. He directed that a failure to do so would "be regarded as a refusal on their part to agree to the further exchange of prisoners, and [would] be so treated by us."[34]

This demand was refused; Confederate Secretary of War Seddon in June 1864 wrote:

I doubt, however, whether the exchange of negroes at all for our soldiers would be tolerated. As to the white officers serving with negro troops, we ought never to be inconvenienced with such prisoners.[35]

The Union already had established a policy to discourage killing and enslaving prisoners of war. On July 30, 1863, before the massacre, President Abraham Lincoln wrote his Order of Retaliation:

It is therefore ordered that for every soldier of the United States killed in violation of the laws of war, a rebel soldier shall be executed; and for every one enslaved by the enemy or sold into slavery[,] a rebel soldier shall be placed at hard labor on the public works, and continued at such labor until the other shall be released and receive the treatment due to a prisoner of war.[36]

On May 3, 1864, President Abraham Lincoln asked his cabinet for opinions as to how the Union should respond to the massacre.[37] Secretary of the Treasury Salmon P. Chase recommended that Lincoln enforce his Order of Retaliation of July 30, 1863.[38] Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles wanted to wait for the congressional committee to obtain more information. Welles expressed concerns in his diary: "There must be something in these terrible reports, but I distrust Congressional committees. They exaggerate."[39] Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton and Attorney General Edward Bates wanted to retaliate.[40][41] Secretary of the Interior John P. Usher wrote that it was "inexpedient to take any extreme action" and wanted the officers of Forrest's command to be held responsible.[42] Postmaster General Montgomery Blair wanted the "actual offenders" given the "most summary punishment when captured." Blair cited page 445 of the book International Law; or, Rules Regulating the Intercourse of States in Peace and War, written by Henry W. Halleck (the Union Chief of Staff), as justification for retaliation.[43] Secretary of State William H. Seward wanted the commanding general of the Union army to confront the commanding general of the Confederate army about the allegations.[44]

Navy Secretary Welles wrote of the cabinet meeting on May 6:

Stanton fell in with my suggestion, so far as to propose that, should Forrest, or Chalmers, or any officer conspicuous in this butchery be captured, he should be turned over for trial for the murders at Fort Pillow. I sat beside Chase and mentioned to him some of the advantages of this course, and he said it made a favorable impression. I urged him to say so, for it appeared to me that the President and Seward did not appreciate it.[45]

Lincoln began to write instructions to Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton, but took no subsequent action because he was "distracted" by other issues.[46]

In the United States Senate, Henry Wilson cited the massacre when he advocated for equal pay for African-American soldiers.[47] A Vermont newspaper portrayed Wilson's position:

Henry Wilson of Massachusetts, in a speech in the U. S. Senate on Friday, said he thought our treatment of the negro soldiers almost as bad as that of the rebels at Fort Pillow. This is hardly an exaggeration.[48]

Nathan Bedford Forrest has been called "one of the most controversial—and popular—icons of the war."[49] He served as the first Grand Wizard of the Ku Klux Klan, but later distanced himself from the organization.[50]

Legacy

Fort Pillow, preserved as the Fort Pillow State Park, was designated as a National Historic Landmark in 1974.[51]

In popular culture

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ John L. Jordan, "Was there a Massacre at Fort Pillow?" Tennessee Historical Quarterly, Vol. 6, No. 2 (June, 1947), 99-133 (113).
  2. 1 2 Eicher, p. 657.
  3. ↑ Grant, Ulysses (August 23, 1863). "Letter to Abraham Lincoln". Cairo, Illinois. Archived from the original on May 3, 2014. Retrieved May 3, 2014. I have given the subject of arming the Negro my hearty support. This, with the emancipation of the Negro, is the heaviest blow yet given the Confederacy. The South rave a greatdeel about it and profess to be very angry.
  4. ↑ Hall, Andy (April 15, 2014). "Understanding Fort Pillow: 'Full and Ample Retaliation'". Dead Confederates: A Civil War Blog. WordPress. Archived from the original on March 7, 2016. Retrieved March 6, 2016.
  5. ↑ Williams, George W., History of the Negro Race in America from 1619 to 1880: Negros as Slaves, as Soldiers, and as Citizens, vol. II, New York: G.P. Putnam Son's, 1883, pp. 351–352.
  6. ↑ Congress of the Confederate States of America (May 1, 1863). "No. 5.". Joint Resolution on the Subject of Retaliation. Virginia. Archived from the original on March 7, 2016. Retrieved March 6, 2016.
  7. ↑ U.S. Congress JCCW, p. 3.
  8. 1 2 United States. War Dept, Henry Martyn Lazelle, Leslie J. Perry (1891). The War of the Rebellion: v.1-53 [serial no. 1-111] Formal reports, both ... Washington: Government Printing Office. p. 547.
  9. ↑ Foote, p. 108.
  10. ↑ NPS website
  11. ↑ Eicher, p. 655.
  12. ↑ Foote, p. 109.
  13. ↑ http://thisweekinthecivilwar.com/?p=1816 |On this date in Civil War history – Fort Pillow Massacre – April 12, 1864
  14. ↑ Moody, John Sheldon, et al., The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies, Series 1, Part 1. Vol. 32. (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1891), p. 596.
  15. 1 2 Bailey, p. 25.
  16. ↑ Castel, pp. 37–50.
  17. ↑ Ward, Andrew (2005). River Run Red: The Fort Pillow Massacre in the American Civil War. Penguin Books. p. 3. ISBN 978-1-4406-4929-5.
  18. ↑ Richard Fuchs, An Unerring Fire: The Massacre At Fort Pillow (Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole, 2002), p. 14.
  19. ↑ Ward (2005), p. 227.
  20. ↑ John Cimprich, Fort Pillow: A Civil War Massacre and Public Memory(Louisiana State University Press, 2005), pp. 123–124.
  21. ↑ "Lieut. Daniel Van Horn's Official Report For The Battle Of Fort Pillow". The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies (Washington, D.C.). Xxxii/1 S# 57. 1880. Archived from the original on December 15, 2010. Retrieved January 4, 2011.
  22. ↑ Foote, pp. 111–112.
  23. 1 2 Jordan
  24. ↑ Cimprich and Mainfort, pp. 293–306.
  25. ↑ Nevins, p. 60.
  26. ↑ Fuchs, p. 84.
  27. ↑ U.S. Grant, Personal Memoirs (Library of America, 1990), p. 483.
  28. ↑ Fisher, pp. 145–146.
  29. ↑ William T. Sherman, Memoirs of General W.T. Sherman (Library of America, 1990), p. 463.
  30. ↑ https://archive.org/details/fortpillowmassac00unit
  31. ↑ William T. Sherman, Memoirs of General W.T. Sherman (Library of America, 1990), p. 470.
  32. ↑ Dyer, Frederick H., A Compendium of the War of Rebellion (Des Moines: The Dyer Publishing Company 1908), p. 590.
  33. ↑ Eicher, p. 657; U.S. Congress JCCW, p. 103.
  34. ↑ Fuchs, pp. 143–144.
  35. ↑ Fuchs, p. 144.
  36. ↑ Lincoln, Abraham. Abraham Lincoln Complete Works. Edited by John G. Nicolay and John Hay. Vol. II. (New York, NY: The Century Company, 1920), p. 378.
  37. ↑ Lincoln, Abraham. "Abraham Lincoln to Cabinet, Tuesday, May 03, 1864 (Fort Pillow massacre)," Abraham Lincoln Papers at the Library of Congress. May 3, 1864. http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/alhtml/malhome.html (accessed December 1, 2012).
  38. ↑ Chase, Salmon P. "Salmon P. Chase to Abraham Lincoln, Friday, May 06, 1864 (Opinion on Fort Pillow massacre)," The Abraham Lincoln Papers at the Library of Congress. May 6, 1864. http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/alhtml/malhome.html (accessed December 2, 2012).
  39. ↑ Welles, Gideon. Diary of Gideon Welles. Vol II (Boston and New York: Houghton and Mifflin Company, 1911), p. 23.
  40. ↑ Stanton, Edwin M. "Edwin M. Stanton to Abraham Lincoln, Thursday May 05, 1864 (Opinion on Fort Pillow massacre)," The Abraham Lincoln Papers at the Library of Congress. May 5, 1864. http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/alhtml/malhome.html (accessed December 2, 2012).
  41. ↑ Bates, Edward. "Edward Bates to Abraham Lincoln, Wednesday, May 04, 1864 (Opinion on Fort Pillow massacre)," The Abraham Lincoln Papers at the Library of Congress. May 4, 1863. http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/alhtml/malhome.html (accessed December 1, 2012).
  42. ↑ Usher, John P. "John P. Usher to Abraham Lincoln, Friday, May 06, 1864 (Opinion on Fort Pillow massacre)," The Abraham Lincoln Papers at the Library of Congress. May 6, 1864. http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/alhtml/malhome.html (accessed December 2, 2012).
  43. ↑ Blair, Montgomery. "Montgomery Blair to Abraham Lincoln, Friday, May 06, 1864 (Opinion on Fort Pillow massacre)." The Abraham Lincoln Papers at the Library of Congress. May 6, 1864. http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/alhtml/malhome.html (accessed December 2, 2012).
  44. ↑ Seward, William H. "William H. Seward to Abraham Lincoln, Wednesday, May 04, 1864 (Opinion on Fort Pillow)." The Abraham Lincoln Papers at the Library of Congress. May 4, 1864. http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/alhtml/malhome.html (accessed December 2, 2012).
  45. ↑ Welles, Gideon. Diary of Gideon Welles. (Boston and New York: Houghton and Mifflin Company, 1911), p. 25.
  46. ↑ see Note 1, Lincoln, Abraham. "Abraham Lincoln to William H. Seward, Tuesday, May 03, 1864 (Fort Pillow massacre)." Abraham Lincoln Papers at the Library of Congress. May 3, 1864. http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/alhtml/malhome.html (accessed December 1, 2012). For Lincoln's unfinished instructions to Stanton, see Collected Works, VII, pp. 345-46.
  47. ↑ United States. Congress. The Congressional Globe: Containing the Debate and Proceedings of the First Session of the Thirty-eight Congress. Edited by John C. Rives. (Washington, DC: Congressional Globe Printing Office, 1864.), pp. 1805-6.
  48. ↑ The Burlington Free Press. "Our Colored Soldiers." April 29, 1864: 2.
  49. ↑ "KKK leader on specialty license plates? Plan in Mississippi raises hackles". Christian Science Monitor. February 11, 2011.
  50. ↑ Foner (1988), p. 342. Hurst (1993), pp. 285, 287–288. M. Lewis and J. Serbu, "Commemorating the KKK", Sociological Quarterly, January 1999.
  51. ↑ "List of National Historic Landmarks by State" (PDF). U.S. Department of the Interior. June 2010. p. 94.

References

Further reading

External links

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