Boiler

A portable boiler
(preserved,Historic Silver Mine in Tarnowskie Góry Poland).
A stationary boiler
(United States).

A boiler is a closed vessel in which water or other fluid is heated. The fluid does not necessarily boil. (In North America the term "furnace" is normally used if the purpose is not actually to boil the fluid.) The heated or vaporized fluid exits the boiler for use in various processes or heating applications,[1][2] including water heating, central heating, boiler-based power generation, cooking, and sanitation.

Materials

The pressure vessel of a boiler is usually made of steel (or alloy steel), or historically of wrought iron. Stainless steel, especially of the austenitic types, is not used in wetted parts of boilers due to corrosion and stress corrosion cracking.[3] However, ferritic stainless steel is often used in superheater sections that will not be exposed to boiling water, and electrically-heated stainless steel shell boilers are allowed under the European "Pressure Equipment Directive" for production of steam for sterilizers and disinfectors.[4]

In live steam models, copper or brass is often used because it is more easily fabricated in smaller size boilers. Historically, copper was often used for fireboxes (particularly for steam locomotives), because of its better formability and higher thermal conductivity; however, in more recent times, the high price of copper often makes this an uneconomic choice and cheaper substitutes (such as steel) are used instead.

For much of the Victorian "age of steam", the only material used for boilermaking was the highest grade of wrought iron, with assembly by rivetting. This iron was often obtained from specialist ironworks, such as at Cleator Moor (UK), noted for the high quality of their rolled plate and its suitability for high-reliability use in critical applications, such as high-pressure boilers. In the 20th century, design practice instead moved towards the use of steel, which is stronger and cheaper, with welded construction, which is quicker and requires less labour. It should be noted, however, that wrought iron boilers corrode far slower than their modern-day steel counterparts, and are less susceptible to localized pitting and stress-corrosion. This makes the longevity of older wrought-iron boilers far superior to those of welded steel boilers.

Cast iron may be used for the heating vessel of domestic water heaters. Although such heaters are usually termed "boilers" in some countries, their purpose is usually to produce hot water, not steam, and so they run at low pressure and try to avoid actual boiling. The brittleness of cast iron makes it impractical for high-pressure steam boilers.

Energy

The source of heat for a boiler is combustion of any of several fuels, such as wood, coal, oil, or natural gas. Electric steam boilers use resistance- or immersion-type heating elements. Nuclear fission is also used as a heat source for generating steam, either directly (BWR) or, in most cases, in specialised heat exchangers called "steam generators" (PWR). Heat recovery steam generators (HRSGs) use the heat rejected from other processes such as gas turbine.

Boiler efficiency

there are two method to measure the boiler efficiency 1) direct method 2) indirect method

Direct method -direct method of boiler efficiency test is more usable or more common

boiler efficiency =Q*(Hg-Hf)/q*GCV *100 Q =Total steam flow Hg= Enthalpy of saturated steam in k cal/kg Hf =Enthalpy of feed water in kcal/kg q= quantity of fuel use in kg/hr GCV =gross calorific value in Kcal/kg like pet coke (8200 KCAL/KG)

indirect method -to measure the boiler efficiency in indirect method we need a following parameter like 1)Ultimate analysis of fuel (H2,S2,S,C moisture constraint,ash constraint) 2)percentage of O2 or CO2 at flue gas 3)flue gas temperature at outlet 4)ambient temperature in deg c and humidity of air in kg/kg 5)GCV of flue in Kcal/kg 6)ash percentage in combustible fuel 7)GCV of ash in Kcal/kg

Configurations

Boilers can be classified into the following configurations:

1950s design steam locomotive boiler, from a Victorian Railways J class

Safety

To define and secure boilers safely, some professional specialized organizations such as the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) develop standards and regulation codes. For instance, the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code is a standard providing a wide range of rules and directives to ensure compliance of the boilers and other pressure vessels with safety, security and design standards.[5]

Historically, boilers were a source of many serious injuries and property destruction due to poorly understood engineering principles. Thin and brittle metal shells can rupture, while poorly welded or riveted seams could open up, leading to a violent eruption of the pressurized steam. When water is converted to steam it expands to over 1,000 times its original volume and travels down steam pipes at over 100 kilometres per hour. Because of this, steam is a great way of moving energy and heat around a site from a central boiler house to where it is needed, but without the right boiler feed water treatment, a steam-raising plant will suffer from scale formation and corrosion. At best, this increases energy costs and can lead to poor quality steam, reduced efficiency, shorter plant life and unreliable operation. At worst, it can lead to catastrophic failure and loss of life. Collapsed or dislodged boiler tubes can also spray scalding-hot steam and smoke out of the air intake and firing chute, injuring the firemen who load the coal into the fire chamber. Extremely large boilers providing hundreds of horsepower to operate factories can potentially demolish entire buildings. [6]

A boiler that has a loss of feed water and is permitted to boil dry can be extremely dangerous. If feed water is then sent into the empty boiler, the small cascade of incoming water instantly boils on contact with the superheated metal shell and leads to a violent explosion that cannot be controlled even by safety steam valves. Draining of the boiler can also happen if a leak occurs in the steam supply lines that is larger than the make-up water supply could replace. The Hartford Loop was invented in 1919 by the Hartford Steam Boiler and Insurance Company as a method to help prevent this condition from occurring, and thereby reduce their insurance claims.[7][8][9]

Superheated steam boilers

A superheated boiler on a steam locomotive.
Main article: Superheater

Most boilers produce steam to be used at saturation temperature; that is, saturated steam. Superheated steam boilers vaporize the water and then further heat the steam in a superheater. This provides steam at much higher temperature, but can decrease the overall thermal efficiency of the steam generating plant because the higher steam temperature requires a higher flue gas exhaust temperature. There are several ways to circumvent this problem, typically by providing an economizer that heats the feed water, a combustion air heater in the hot flue gas exhaust path, or both. There are advantages to superheated steam that may, and often will, increase overall efficiency of both steam generation and its utilization: gains in input temperature to a turbine should outweigh any cost in additional boiler complication and expense. There may also be practical limitations in using wet steam, as entrained condensation droplets will damage turbine blades.

Superheated steam presents unique safety concerns because, if any system component fails and allows steam to escape, the high pressure and temperature can cause serious, instantaneous harm to anyone in its path. Since the escaping steam will initially be completely superheated vapor, detection can be difficult, although the intense heat and sound from such a leak clearly indicates its presence.

Superheater operation is similar to that of the coils on an air conditioning unit, although for a different purpose. The steam piping is directed through the flue gas path in the boiler furnace. The temperature in this area is typically between 1,300 and 1,600 °C (2,372 and 2,912 °F). Some superheaters are radiant type; that is, they absorb heat by radiation. Others are convection type, absorbing heat from a fluid. Some are a combination of the two types. Through either method, the extreme heat in the flue gas path will also heat the superheater steam piping and the steam within. While the temperature of the steam in the superheater rises, the pressure of the steam does not and the pressure remains the same as that of the boiler.[10] Almost all steam superheater system designs remove droplets entrained in the steam to prevent damage to the turbine blading and associated piping.

Supercritical steam generator

Boiler for a power plant.

Supercritical steam generators are frequently used for the production of electric power. They operate at supercritical pressure. In contrast to a "subcritical boiler", a supercritical steam generator operates at such a high pressure (over 3,200 psi or 22 MPa) that the physical turbulence that characterizes boiling ceases to occur; the fluid is neither liquid nor gas but a super-critical fluid. There is no generation of steam bubbles within the water, because the pressure is above the critical pressure point at which steam bubbles can form. As the fluid expands through the turbine stages, its thermodynamic state drops below the critical point as it does work turning the turbine which turns electrical generator from which power is ultimately extracted. The fluid at that point may be a mix of steam and liquid droplets as it passes into the condenser. This results in slightly less fuel use and therefore less greenhouse gas production. The term "boiler" should not be used for a supercritical pressure steam generator, as no "boiling" actually occurs in this device.

Accessories

Boiler fittings and accessories

Steam accessories

Combustion accessories

Other essential items

Gas safe check

Draught

A fuel-heated boiler must provide air to oxidize its fuel. Early boilers provided this stream of air, or draught, through the natural action of convection in a chimney connected to the exhaust of the combustion chamber. Since the heated flue gas is less dense than the ambient air surrounding the boiler, the flue gas rises in the chimney, pulling denser, fresh air into the combustion chamber.

Most modern boilers depend on mechanical draught rather than natural draught. This is because natural draught is subject to outside air conditions and temperature of flue gases leaving the furnace, as well as the chimney height. All these factors make proper draught hard to attain and therefore make mechanical draught equipment much more reliable and economical.

Types of draught can also be divided into induced draught, where exhaust gases are pulled out of the boiler; forced draught, where fresh air is pushed into the boiler; and balanced draught, where both effects are employed. Natural draught through the use of a chimney is a type of induced draught; mechanical draught can be induced, forced or balanced.

There are two types of mechanical induced draught. The first is through use of a steam jet. The steam jet oriented in the direction of flue gas flow induces flue gases into the stack and allows for a greater flue gas velocity increasing the overall draught in the furnace. This method was common on steam driven locomotives which could not have tall chimneys. The second method is by simply using an induced draught fan (ID fan) which removes flue gases from the furnace and forces the exhaust gas up the stack. Almost all induced draught furnaces operate with a slightly negative pressure.

Mechanical forced draught is provided by means of a fan forcing air into the combustion chamber. Air is often passed through an air heater; which, as the name suggests, heats the air going into the furnace in order to increase the overall efficiency of the boiler. Dampers are used to control the quantity of air admitted to the furnace. Forced draught furnaces usually have a positive pressure.

Balanced draught is obtained through use of both induced and forced draught. This is more common with larger boilers where the flue gases have to travel a long distance through many boiler passes. The induced draught fan works in conjunction with the forced draught fan allowing the furnace pressure to be maintained slightly below atmospheric.

See also

References

  1. ↑ Frederick M. Steingress (2001). Low Pressure Boilers (4th ed.). American Technical Publishers. ISBN 0-8269-4417-5.
  2. ↑ Frederick M. Steingress, Harold J. Frost and Darryl R. Walker (2003). High Pressure Boilers (3rd ed.). American Technical Publishers. ISBN 0-8269-4300-4.
  3. ↑ ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section I, PG-5.5, American Society of Mechanical Engineers (2010)
  4. ↑ BS EN 14222: "Stainless steel shell boilers"
  5. ↑ Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspection According to ASME
  6. ↑ The Locomotive, by Hartford Steam Boiler Inspection and Insurance Company, Published by Hartford Steam Boiler Inspection and Insurance Co., 1911, Item notes: n.s.:v.28 (1910–11), Original from Harvard University, Digitized December 11, 2007 by Google Books, Link to digitized document: an article on a massive Pabst Brewing Company boiler explosion in 1909 that destroyed a building, and blew parts onto the roof of nearby buildings. This document also contains a list of day-by-day boiler accidents and accident summaries by year, and discussions of boiler damage claims.
  7. ↑ http://www.masterplumbers.com/plumbviews/2001/hartford.asp (Looking for a better source than this.)
  8. ↑ Dan Holohan. "What you should know about Hartford Loops".
  9. ↑ "The Hartford Loop on Steam Boilers".
  10. ↑ Bell, A.M. (1952) Locomotives 1 p 46. Virtue and Company Ltd, London
  11. ↑ Bell (1952: 1 35)

Further reading

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Boilers.
  • American Society of Mechanical Engineers: ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section I. Updated every 3 years.
  • Association of Water Technologies: Association of Water Technologies (AWT).
  • The Babcock & Wilcox Co. (1902): "Steam, its generation and use", New York-London, republished by Nabu Press, ISBN 978-1147-61244-8 (2010)
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