Brussels

This article is about the Brussels-Capital Region. For the municipality within it and the official capital of Belgium, see City of Brussels.
For other places with the same name, see Brussels (disambiguation).
Brussels
  • Bruxelles
  • Brussel
Region of Belgium
  • Brussels Capital Region
  • Région de Bruxelles-Capitale
  • Brussels Hoofdstedelijk Gewest

A collage with several views of Brussels, Top: View of the Northern Quarter business district, 2nd left: Floral carpet event in the Grand Place, 2nd right: Brussels City Hall and Mont des Arts area, 3rd: Cinquantenaire Park, 4th left: Manneken Pis, 4th middle: St. Michael and St. Gudula Cathedral, 4th right: Congress Column, Bottom: Royal Palace of Brussels

Flag
Coat of Arms
Nickname(s): Capital of Europe[1] Comic city[2][3]


Location of  Brussels  (dark green)

– in the European Union  (grey & light green)
– in Belgium  (grey)

Coordinates: 50°51′N 4°21′E / 50.850°N 4.350°E / 50.850; 4.350Coordinates: 50°51′N 4°21′E / 50.850°N 4.350°E / 50.850; 4.350
Country Belgium
Settled c. 580
Founded 979
Region 18 June 1989
Municipalities
Government
 • Executive Government of the Brussels-Capital Region
 • Governing parties (2014–2019) PS, FDF, cdH; Open Vld, sp.a, CD&V
 • Minister-President Rudi Vervoort (PS)
 • Legislature Parliament of the Brussels-Capital Region
 • Speaker Charles Picqué (PS)
Area
 • Region/City 161.38 km2 (62.2 sq mi)
Elevation 13 m (43 ft)
Population (1 January 2013)[4]
 • Region/City 1,138,854
 • Density 7,025/km2 (16,857/sq mi)
 • Metro 1,830,000
Time zone CET (UTC+1)
 • Summer (DST) CEST (UTC+2)
ISO 3166 BE-BRU
Website be.brussels

Brussels (French: Bruxelles, [bʁysɛl]; Dutch: Brussel, [ˈbrɵsəl]), officially the Brussels-Capital Region[5][6] (French: Région de Bruxelles-Capitale, Dutch: Brussels Hoofdstedelijk Gewest),[7] is a region of Belgium comprising 19 municipalities, including the City of Brussels which is the capital of Belgium,[8] the French Community of Belgium,[9] and the Flemish Community.[10] The region has a population of 1.2 million and a metropolitan area with a population of over 1.8 million, the largest in Belgium.[11][12]

Since the end of the Second World War, Brussels has been a major centre for international politics and has become the polyglot home of numerous international organizations, politicians, diplomats and civil servants.[13] Brussels is the de facto capital of the European Union as it hosts a number of principal EU institutions (the other administrative centres are Luxembourg and Strasbourg).[14][15][16] The secretariat of the Benelux and the headquarters of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) are also located in Brussels.

Historically a Dutch-speaking city, it has seen a language shift to French from the late 19th century onwards. Today the majority language is French, and the Brussels-Capital Region is an officially bilingual enclave within the Flemish Region. All road signs, street names, and many advertisements and services are shown in both languages.[17] Brussels is increasingly becoming multilingual with increasing numbers of migrants, expatriates and minority groups speaking their own languages.

History

Charles of Lorraine founded what would become Brussels c. 979

The most common theory of the origin of Brussels' name is that it derives from the Old Dutch Broekzele or Broeksel, meaning marsh (broek) and home (zele / sel) or "home in the marsh".[18] The origin of the settlement that was to become Brussels lies in Saint Gaugericus' construction of a chapel on an island in the river Senne around 580.[19] Saint Vindicianus, the bishop of Cambrai made the first recorded reference to the place "Brosella" in 695[20] when it was still a hamlet. The official founding of Brussels is usually situated around 979, when Duke Charles of Lower Lotharingia transferred the relics of Saint Gudula from Moorsel to the Saint Gaugericus chapel. Charles would construct the first permanent fortification in the city, doing so on that same island.

Lambert I of Leuven, Count of Leuven gained the County of Brussels around 1000 by marrying Charles' daughter. Because of its location on the shores of the Senne on an important trade route between Bruges and Ghent, and Cologne, Brussels grew quite quickly; it became a commercial centre that rapidly extended towards the upper town (St. Michael and Gudula Cathedral, Coudenberg, Sablon area), where there was a smaller risk of floods. As it grew to a population of around 30,000, the surrounding marshes were drained to allow for further expansion. The Counts of Leuven became Dukes of Brabant at about this time (1183/1184). In the 13th century, the city got its first walls.[21]

Grand Place after the 1695 bombardment by the French army

After the construction of the city walls in the early 13th century, Brussels grew significantly. To let the city expand, a second set of walls was erected between 1356 and 1383. Today, traces of it can still be seen, mostly because the "small ring", a series of roadways in downtown Brussels bounding the historic city centre, follows its former course.

In the 15th century, by means of the wedding of heiress Margaret III of Flanders with Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, a new Duke of Brabant emerged from the House of Valois (namely Antoine, their son), with another line of descent from the Habsburgs (Maximilian of Austria, later Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor, married Mary of Burgundy, who was born in Brussels). Brabant had lost its independence, but Brussels became the Princely Capital of the prosperous Low Countries, and flourished.

In 1516 Charles V, who had been heir of the Low Countries since 1506, was declared King of Spain in St. Michael and St. Gudula Cathedral in Brussels. Upon the death of his grandfather, Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor in 1519, Charles became the new ruler of the Habsburg Empire and was subsequently elected the Holy Roman Emperor. It was in the Palace complex at Coudenberg that Charles V abdicated in 1555. This impressive palace, famous all over Europe, had greatly expanded since it had first become the seat of the Dukes of Brabant, but it was destroyed by fire in 1731.

In 1695, King Louis XIV of France sent troops to bombard Brussels with artillery. Together with the resulting fire, it was the most destructive event in the entire history of Brussels. The Grand Place was destroyed, along with 4000 buildings, a third of those in the city. The reconstruction of the city centre, effected during subsequent years, profoundly changed the appearance of the city and left numerous traces still visible today. The city was captured by France in 1746 during the War of the Austrian Succession but was handed back to Austria three years later.

Brussels remained with Austria until 1795, when the Southern Netherlands was captured and annexed by France. Brussels became the capital of the department of the Dyle. It remained a part of France until 1815, when it joined the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. The former Dyle department became the province of South Brabant, with Brussels as its capital.

Episode of the Belgian Revolution of 1830, Wappers (1834)

In 1830, the Belgian revolution took place in Brussels after a performance of Auber's opera La Muette de Portici at the La Monnaie theatre. Brussels became the capital and seat of government of the new nation. South Brabant was renamed simply Brabant, with Brussels as its capital. On 21 July 1831, Leopold I, the first King of the Belgians, ascended the throne, undertaking the destruction of the city walls and the construction of many buildings. Following independence, the city underwent many more changes. The Senne had become a serious health hazard, and from 1867 to 1871 its entire course through the urban area was completely covered over. This allowed urban renewal and the construction of modern buildings and boulevards characteristic of downtown Brussels today.

The 1927 Solvay Conference in Brussels was the fifth world physics conference

Throughout this time, Brussels remained mostly a Dutch-speaking city, though until 1921 French was the sole language of administration. During the 20th century the city has hosted various fairs and conferences, including the Solvay Conference on Physics and on Chemistry, and two world fairs: the Brussels International Exposition of 1935 and the Expo '58. During World War I, Brussels was an occupied city, but German troops did not cause much damage. In World War II the city was again occupied, and was spared major damage during its occupation by German forces before it was liberated by the British Guards Armoured Division. The Brussels Airport dates to the occupation.

After the war, Brussels underwent extensive modernization. The construction of the North–South connection linking the main railway stations in the city was completed in 1952, while the first Brussels premetro was finished in 1969, and the first line of the Brussels Metro was opened in 1976. Starting from the early 1960s, Brussels became the de facto capital of what would become the European Union, and many modern buildings were built. Development was allowed to proceed with little regard to the aesthetics of newer buildings, and many architectural landmarks were demolished to make way for newer buildings that often clashed with their surroundings, giving name to the process of Brusselization.

The Brussels-Capital Region was formed on 18 June 1989 after a constitutional reform in 1988. It has bilingual status and it is one of the three federal regions of Belgium, along with Flanders and Wallonia.[5][6]

2016 Brussels bombings

On the morning of 22 March 2016, three coordinated nail bombings occurred in Brussels. Two at Brussels Airport in Zaventem, and one at Maalbeek/Maelbeek metro station. During the attacks 32 victims and three suicide bombers were killed, and 330 people were injured. A fourth bomb was found at the airport, and detonated using a controlled explosion. ISIL claimed responsibility for the terrorist attack, targeting Belgium for its ongoing military intervention against the group. This was the deadliest act of terrorism in Belgian history, and the Belgian government declared three days of national mourning.

Brussels as a capital

The Royal Palace of Brussels

Despite what its name suggests, the Brussels-Capital Region is not the capital of Belgium in itself. Article 194 of the Belgian Constitution establishes that the capital of Belgium is the City of Brussels, the municipality within the capital region that once was the city's core.[8]

The City of Brussels is the location of many national institutions. The Royal Palace, where the King of Belgium exercises his prerogatives as head of state, is situated alongside the Brussels Park. The Palace of the Nation is located on the opposite side of this park, and is the seat of the Belgian Federal Parliament. The office of the Prime Minister of Belgium, colloquially called Law Street 16 (Dutch: Wetstraat 16, French: 16, rue de la Loi), is located adjacent to this building. This is also the place where the Council of Ministers holds its meetings. The Court of Cassation, Belgium's main court, has its seat in the Palace of Justice. Other important institutions in the City of Brussels are the Constitutional Court, the Council of State, the Court of Audit, the Royal Belgian Mint and the National Bank of Belgium.

The City of Brussels is also the capital of both the French Community of Belgium[9] and the Flemish Community.[10] The Flemish Parliament and Flemish Government have their seats in Brussels,[22] as do the Parliament of the French Community and the Government of the French Community.

Municipalities

French name Dutch name
Anderlecht Anderlecht I
Auderghem Oudergem II
Berchem-Sainte-Agathe Sint-Agatha-Berchem III
Bruxelles-Ville Stad Brussel IV
Etterbeek Etterbeek V
Evere Evere VI
Forest Vorst VII
Ganshoren Ganshoren VIII
Ixelles Elsene IX
Jette Jette X
Koekelberg Koekelberg XI
Molenbeek-Saint-Jean Sint-Jans-Molenbeek XII
Saint-Gilles Sint-Gillis XIII
Saint-Josse-ten-Noode Sint-Joost-ten-Node XIV
Schaerbeek Schaarbeek XV
Uccle Ukkel XVI
Watermael-Boitsfort Watermaal-Bosvoorde XVII
Woluwe-Saint-Lambert Sint-Lambrechts-Woluwe XVIII
Woluwe-Saint-Pierre Sint-Pieters-Woluwe XIX
The Town Hall of the City of Brussels municipality

The 19 municipalities (communes) of the Brussels-Capital Region are political subdivisions with individual responsibilities for the handling of local level duties, such as law enforcement and the upkeep of schools and roads within its borders.[23][24] Municipal administration is also conducted by a mayor, a council, and an executive.[24]

In 1831, Belgium was divided into 2,739 municipalities, including the 19 in the Brussels-Capital Region.[25] Unlike most of the municipalities in Belgium, the ones located in the Brussels-Capital Region were not merged with others during mergers occurring in 1964, 1970, and 1975.[25] However, several municipalities outside of the Brussels-Capital Region have been merged with the City of Brussels throughout its history including Laeken, Haren, and Neder-Over-Heembeek, which were merged into the City of Brussels in 1921.[26]

The largest and most populous of the municipalities is the City of Brussels, covering 32.6 square kilometres (12.6 sq mi) with 145,917 inhabitants. The least populous is Koekelberg with 18,541 inhabitants, while the smallest in area is Saint-Josse-ten-Noode, which is only 1.1 square kilometres (0.4 sq mi). Despite being the smallest municipality, Saint-Josse-ten-Noode has the highest population density of the 19 with 20,822 inhabitants per km2.

A lot of controversy exists concerning the division of 19 municipalities for a highly urbanized region which is considered as (half of) one city by most people. Some politicians mock the '19 baronies' and want to merge the municipalities under one city council and one mayor.[27][28] This would lower the number of politicians needed to govern Brussels, and centralise the power over the city to make decisions easier. Thus reduce the overall running costs. The current municipalities could be transformed into districts with limited responsibilities, similar to the current structure of Antwerp or to structures of other capitals like the boroughs in London or arrondissements in Paris, to keep politics close enough to the citizen.[29]

The commune of Molenbeek located in Brussels have gained the international reputation as being being a safe haven for Jihadist and even having recently been called the "The Islamic State of Molenbeek" in relation to the continuing support shown by residents towards the bombers who carried out the Paris and Brussels attacks. [30] [31][32][33][34][35][36][37]

Brussels-Capital Region

The Brussels-Capital Region is one of the three federated regions of Belgium, alongside Wallonia and the Flemish Region. Geographically and linguistically, it is a bilingual enclave in the unilingual Flemish Region. Regions are one component of Belgium's institutions, the three communities being the other component: Brussels' inhabitants deal with either the French Community or the Flemish Community for matters such as culture and education.

Institutions

Brussels Parliament building

The Brussels-Capital Region is governed by a parliament of 89 members (72 French-speaking, 17 Dutch-speaking, parties are organised on a linguistic basis) and an eight-member regional cabinet consisting of a minister-president, four ministers and three state secretaries. By law, the cabinet must comprise two French-speaking and two Dutch-speaking ministers, one Dutch-speaking secretary of state and two French-speaking secretaries of state. The minister-president does not count against the language quota, but in practice every minister-president has been a bilingual francophone. The regional parliament can enact ordinances (French: ordonnances, Dutch: ordonnanties), which have equal status as a national legislative act.

19 of the 72 French-speaking members of the Brussels Parliament are also members of the Parliament of the French Community of Belgium, and until 2004 this was also the case for six Dutch-speaking members, who were at the same time members of the Flemish Parliament. Now, people voting for a Flemish party have to vote separately for 6 directly elected members of the Flemish Parliament.

The Brussels Region is the only one that is not subdivided into provinces, nor is it a province itself. Within the Region, 99% of the areas of provincial jurisdiction are assumed by the Brussels regional institutions. Remaining is only the governor of Brussels-Capital and some aides. Its status is roughly akin to that of a federal district.

Agglomeration of Brussels

Before the creation of the Brussels-Capital Region, regional competences in the 19 municipalities sere performed by the Brussels Agglomeration. The Brussels Agglomeration was an administrative division that was established in 1971. This decentralised administrative public body also assumed jurisdiction over areas that elsewhere in Belgium were exercised by municipalities or provinces.[38]

The Brussels Agglomeration had a separate legislative council, but the by-laws enacted by it did not have the status of a legislative act. The only election of the council took place on 21 November 1971. The working of the council was subject to many difficulties caused by the linguistic and socio-economic tensions between the two communities.

After the creation of the Brussels-Capital Region, the Brussels Agglomeration was never formally abolished, although it no longer has a purpose.

French and Flemish communities

The French Community and the Flemish Community exercise their powers in Brussels through two community-specific public authorities: the French Community Commission (French: Commission communautaire française or COCOF) and the Flemish Community Commission (Dutch: Vlaamse Gemeenschapscommissie or VGC). These two bodies each have an assembly composed of the members of each linguistic group of the Parliament of the Brussels-Capital Region. They also have a board composed of the ministers and secretaries of state of each linguistic group in the Government of the Brussels-Capital Region.

The French Community Commission has also another capacity: some legislative powers of the French Community have been devolved to the Walloon Region (for the French language area of Belgium) and to the French Community Commission (for the bilingual language area).[39] The Flemish Community, however, did the opposite; it merged the Flemish Region into the Flemish Community.[40] This is related to different conceptions in the two communities, one focusing more on the Communities and the other more on the Regions, causing an asymmetrical federalism. Because of this devolution, the French Community Commission can enact decrees, which are legislative acts.

Common Community Commission

A bi-communitarian public authority, the Common Community Commission (French: Commission communautaire commune, COCOM, Dutch: Gemeenschappelijke Gemeenschapscommissie, GGC) also exists. Its assembly is composed of the members of the regional parliament, and its board are the ministers—not the secretaries of state—of the region, with the minister-president not having the right to vote. This Commission has two capacities: it is a decentralised administrative public body, responsible for implementing cultural policies of common interest. It can give subsidies and enact by-laws. In another capacity it can also enact ordinances, which have equal status as a national legislative act, in the field of the welfare powers of the communities: in the Brussels-Capital Region, both the French Community and the Flemish Community can exercise powers in the field of welfare, but only in regard to institutions that are unilingual (for example, a private French-speaking retirement home or the Dutch-speaking hospital of the Vrije Universiteit Brussel). The Common Community Commission is responsible for policies aiming directly at private persons or at bilingual institutions (for example, the centra for social welfare of the 19 municipalities). Its ordinances have to be enacted with a majority in both linguistic groups. Failing such a majority, a new vote can be held, where a majority of at least one third in each linguistic group is sufficient.

International institutions

Brussels has, since World War II, become the administrative centre of many international organizations. The European Union (EU) and the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) have their main institutions in the city, along with many other international organisations such as the World Customs Organization and EUROCONTROL as well as international corporations. Brussels is third in the number of international conferences it hosts[41] also becoming one of the largest convention centres in the world.[42] The presence of the EU and the other international bodies has, for example, led to there being more ambassadors and journalists in Brussels than in Washington D.C.[43] International schools have also been established to serve this presence.[42] The "international community" in Brussels numbers at least 70,000 people.[44] In 2009, there were an estimated 286 lobbying consultancies known to work in Brussels.[45]

European Union

Aerial view of the European Quarter

Brussels serves as capital of the European Union, hosting the major political institutions of the Union.[14] The EU has not declared a capital formally, though the Treaty of Amsterdam formally gives Brussels the seat of the European Commission (the executive/government branch) and the Council of the European Union (a legislative institution made up from executives of member states).[46][47] It locates the formal seat of European Parliament in the French city of Strasbourg, where votes take place with the Council on the proposals made by the Commission. However meetings of political groups and committee groups are formally given to Brussels along with a set number of plenary sessions. Three quarters of Parliament now takes place at its Brussels hemicycle.[48] Between 2002 and 2004, the European Council also fixed its seat in the city.[49] In 2014, the Union hosted a G7 summit in the city.

Brussels, along with Luxembourg and Strasbourg, began to host institutions in 1957, soon becoming the centre of activities as the Commission and Council based their activities in what has become the "European Quarter".[46] Early building in Brussels was sporadic and uncontrolled with little planning, the current major buildings are the Berlaymont building of the Commission, symbolic of the quarter as a whole, the Justus Lipsius building of the Council and the Espace Léopold of Parliament.[47] Today the presence has increased considerably with the Commission alone occupying 865,000 m2 within the "European Quarter" in the east of the city (a quarter of the total office space in Brussels[14]). The concentration and density has caused concern that the presence of the institutions has caused a "ghetto effect" in that part of the city.[50] However the presence has contributed significantly to the importance of Brussels as an international centre.[43]

Eurocontrol

Main article: Eurocontrol
HQ of Eurocontrol in Haren, Brussels

The corporation was founded in 1960 which is tasked to monitor the European aviation by flight, Eurocontrol coordinates and plans air traffic control for all European airspace, the headquarters are located in Haren.

North Atlantic Treaty Organisation

Main article: NATO
Future NATO HQ in Haren, Brussels

The Treaty of Brussels was a prelude to the establishment of this military alliance, which was probably put on 17 March 1948 between Belgium, France, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom, and was a preview of the western European defense against communism. Today the NATO headquarters is located in Haren, a part of the capital city Brussels. [51]

Climate

Under the Köppen climate classification, Brussels experiences an oceanic climate (Cfb). Brussels' proximity to coastal areas influences the area's climate by sending marine air masses from the Atlantic Ocean. Nearby wetlands also ensure a maritime temperate climate. On average (based on measurements over the last 100 years), there are approximately 200 days of rain per year in the Brussels-Capital Region, the highest amount of any European capital.[52] Snowfall is infrequent, averaging 24 days per year.

Climate data for Brussels
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 15.3
(59.5)		 20.0
(68)		 24.2
(75.6)		 28.7
(83.7)		 34.1
(93.4)		 38.8
(101.8)		 37.1
(98.8)		 36.5
(97.7)		 34.9
(94.8)		 27.8
(82)		 20.6
(69.1)		 16.7
(62.1)		 38.8
(101.8)
Average high °C (°F) 5.7
(42.3)		 6.6
(43.9)		 10.4
(50.7)		 14.2
(57.6)		 18.1
(64.6)		 20.6
(69.1)		 23.0
(73.4)		 22.6
(72.7)		 19.0
(66.2)		 14.7
(58.5)		 9.5
(49.1)		 6.1
(43)		 14.2
(57.6)
Daily mean °C (°F) 3.3
(37.9)		 3.7
(38.7)		 6.8
(44.2)		 9.8
(49.6)		 13.6
(56.5)		 16.2
(61.2)		 18.4
(65.1)		 18.0
(64.4)		 14.9
(58.8)		 11.1
(52)		 6.8
(44.2)		 3.9
(39)		 10.54
(50.97)
Average low °C (°F) 0.7
(33.3)		 0.7
(33.3)		 3.1
(37.6)		 5.3
(41.5)		 9.2
(48.6)		 11.9
(53.4)		 14.0
(57.2)		 13.6
(56.5)		 10.9
(51.6)		 7.8
(46)		 4.1
(39.4)		 1.6
(34.9)		 6.9
(44.4)
Record low °C (°F) −21.1
(−6)		 −18.3
(−0.9)		 −13.6
(7.5)		 −5.7
(21.7)		 −2.2
(28)		 0.3
(32.5)		 4.4
(39.9)		 3.9
(39)		 0.0
(32)		 −6.8
(19.8)		 −12.8
(9)		 −17.7
(0.1)		 −21.1
(−6)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 76.1
(2.996)		 63.1
(2.484)		 70.0
(2.756)		 51.3
(2.02)		 66.5
(2.618)		 71.8
(2.827)		 73.5
(2.894)		 79.3
(3.122)		 68.9
(2.713)		 74.9
(2.949)		 76.4
(3.008)		 81.0
(3.189)		 852.4
(33.559)
Average precipitation days 19.2 16.3 17.8 15.9 16.2 15.0 14.3 14.5 15.7 16.6 18.8 19.3 199
Average snowy days 5.2 5.9 3.2 2.4 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.4 4.6 24.1
Average relative humidity (%) 86.6 82.5 78.5 72.5 73.2 74.1 74.3 75.5 80.9 84.6 88.2 88.8 80
Mean monthly sunshine hours 59 77 114 159 191 188 201 190 143 113 66 45 1,546
Source: KMI/IRM[53]

Demographics

Nationalities

Largest groups of foreign residents[54]
Nationality Population (2015)
 France 60,751
 Morocco 38,297
 Romania 33,399
 Italy 31,361
 Spain 27,466
 Poland 26,590
 Portugal 19,609
 Bulgaria 10,722
 Germany 10,304
 Democratic Republic of Congo 8,880

Brussels is home to a large number of immigrants. At the last Belgian census in 1991, 63.7% of inhabitants in Brussels-Capital Region answered that they were Belgian citizens, born as such in Belgium. However, there have been numerous individual or familial migrations towards Brussels since the end of the 18th century, including political refugees (Karl Marx, Victor Hugo, Pierre Joseph Proudhon, Léon Daudet for example), from neighbouring or more distanced countries as well as labour migrants, former foreign students or expatriates, and many Belgian families in Brussels can claim at least one foreign grandparent.

In general the population of Brussels is younger than the national average and the gap between rich and poor is wider.[55] Brussels has a large concentration of immigrants and their children from other countries, including many of Turkish and Moroccan ancestry, together with French-speaking black Africans from the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda and Burundi.

People of foreign origin make up nearly 70%[56] of the population of Brussels, most of whom have been naturalized following the great 1991 reform of the naturalization process. About 32% of city residents are of non-Belgian European origin, and 36% are of another background, mostly from Morocco, Turkey and Sub-Saharan Africa. Among all major migrant groups from outside the EU, a majority of the permanent residents have acquired Belgian nationality.[57]

Religions

St. Mary's Royal Church, a 19th-century Roman Catholic church in Brussels

Although historically majority Roman Catholic, especially since the expulsion of Protestants in the 16th century, most residents of Brussels are nonreligious, with only about 10% of Catholics regularly attending church services. In reflection of its multicultural makeup, it hosts a variety of religious communities, as well as large numbers of atheists and agnostics. Minority faiths include Islam, Anglicanism, Eastern Orthodoxy, Judaism, and Buddhism.

Recognized religions and Laïcité enjoy public funding and school courses: every pupil in an official school from 6 years old to 18 must choose 2 hours per week of compulsory religion—or Laïcité—inspired morals.

Brussels has a large concentration of Muslims, mostly of Turkish and Moroccan ancestry. Belgium does not collect statistics by ethnic background, so exact figures are unknown. It was estimated that in 2005 people of Muslim background account for 25.5% of Brussels' population, a much higher concentration than those of the other regions of Belgium.[58]

Regions of Belgium[58] (1 January 2005) Total population People of Muslim origin % of Muslims
Belgium 10,445,852 628,751 6.0%
Brussels-Capital Region 1,006,749 256,220 25.5%
Wallonia 3,395,942 136,596 4.0%
Flanders 6,043,161 235,935 3.9%

Languages

Estimate of languages spoken at home (Capital Region, 2013)[59]
  French
  Dutch and French
  Dutch
  French and other language
  Neither Dutch nor French

Since the founding of the Kingdom of Belgium in 1830, Brussels has transformed from being almost entirely Dutch-speaking (Brabantian dialect to be exact), to being a multilingual city with French (specifically Belgian French) as the majority language and lingua franca. This language shift, the Francization of Brussels, is rooted in the 18th century and accelerated after Belgium became independent and Brussels expanded past its original boundaries.[60][61]

Manneken Pis is a well-known public sculpture in Brussels

French-speaking immigration contributed to the Frenchification of Brussels; both Walloons and expatriates from other countries, mainly France, came to Brussels in great numbers. However, a more important cause for the Frenchification was the language change over several generations from Dutch to French that was performed in Brussels by the Flemish people themselves. The main reason for this was the political, administrative and social pressure, partly based on the low social prestige of the Dutch language in Belgium at the time; this made French the only language of administration, law, politics and education in Belgium and thus necessary for social mobility.[62] From 1880 on, faced with the necessity of using French in dealing with such institutions, more and more Dutch-speakers became bilingual, and a rise in the number of monolingual French-speakers was seen after 1910. Halfway through the 20th century the number of monolingual French-speakers surpassed the number of mostly bilingual Flemish inhabitants.[63]

Only since the 1960s, after the fixation of the Belgian language border, and after the socio-economic development of Flanders was in full effect, could Dutch stem the tide of increasing French use.[64] Through immigration, a further number of formerly Dutch-speaking municipalities in surrounding Flanders became majority French-speaking in the second half of the 20th century.[65][66][67] This phenomenon is, together with the future of Brussels, one of the most controversial topics in all of Belgian politics.[68][69]

Given its Dutch-speaking origins and the role that Brussels plays as the capital city in a bilingual country, the administration of the entire Brussels-Capital Region is fully bilingual, including its subdivisions and public services. Nevertheless, some communautarian issues remain. Flemish political parties demanded for decades that the Flemish part of Brussels-Halle-Vilvoorde arrondissement be separated from the Brussels Region (which made Halle-Vilvoorde a monolingual Flemish arrondissement). BHV was divided mid 2012. The French-speaking population regards the language border as artificial[70] and demands the extension of the bilingual region to at least all six municipalities with language facilities in the surroundings of Brussels.[71] Flemish politicians have strongly rejected these proposals.[72][73][74]

The original Dutch dialect of Brussels (Brussels) is a form of Brabantic (the variant of Dutch spoken in the ancient Duchy of Brabant) with a significant number of loanwords from French, and still survives among a minority of inhabitants called Brusseleers, many of them quite bi- and multilingual, or educated in French and not writing the Dutch language. Brussels and its suburbs evolved from a Dutch-dialect–speaking town to a mainly French-speaking town. The ethnic and national self-identification of the inhabitants is quite different along ethnic lines.

For their French-speaking Bruxellois, it can vary from Belgian, Francophone Belgian, Bruxellois (like the Memellanders in interwar ethnic censuses in Memel), Walloon (for people who migrated from the Wallonia Region at an adult age); for Flemings living in Brussels it is mainly either Flemish or Brusselaar (Dutch for an inhabitant) and often both. For the Brusseleers, many simply consider themselves as belonging to Brussels. For the many rather recent immigrants from other countries, the identification also includes all the national origins: people tend to call themselves Moroccans or Turks rather than an American-style hyphenated version.

The two largest foreign groups come from two francophone countries: France and Morocco.[75] The first language of roughly half of the inhabitants is not an official one of the Capital Region.[76] Nevertheless, about three out of four residents are Belgian nationals.[77][78][79]

In recent decades, owing to migration and the city's international role, Brussels is home to a growing number of foreign language speakers. In 2013, figures cited in the Marnix Plan show that 63.2% of Brussels inhabitants are native speakers of French, while less than 20% are native Dutch speakers. Just 2.5% speak English as their mother tongue, but 29.7% of people living in the city claim to speak English well or very well.[80] The use of English as an unofficial compromise language between Dutch and French is rising, but language laws still require Dutch and French translations in most cases. The acceptance of English as a language for communication with the city's public servants depends entirely on the goodwill of the public servants, though they must accept questions in French and Dutch.[81]

The migrant communities, as well as rapidly growing communities of EU-nationals from other EU-member states, speak many languages like French, Turkish, Arabic, Berber, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, Polish, German, and (increasingly) English. The degree of linguistic integration varies widely within each migrant group.

Culture

Architecture

Guildhalls on the Grand Place

The architecture in Brussels is diverse, and spans from the clashing combination of Gothic, Baroque and Louis XIV styles on the Grand Place to the postmodern buildings of the EU institutions.

The Grand Place is the main attraction in the city centre and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1998. The square is dominated by the Flamboyant Town Hall, the Neo-Gothic Breadhouse and the Baroque guildhalls. Other landmarks in the centre include the St. Michael and Gudula Cathedral, the Royal Palace and the Palace of Justice.

The Manneken Pis, a fountain containing a bronze sculpture of a urinating youth, is a tourist attraction and symbol of the city.

Also particularly striking are the buildings in the Art Nouveau style by the Brussels architect Victor Horta. Some of Brussels' districts were developed during the heyday of Art Nouveau, and many buildings are in this style. Good examples include Schaerbeek, Etterbeek, Ixelles, and Saint-Gilles. Another example of Brussels Art Nouveau is the Stoclet Palace, by the Viennese architect Josef Hoffmann. The modern buildings of Espace Leopold complete the picture.

Cinquantenaire triumphal arch

Located outside the centre in a more green environment are the Cinquantenaire park with its triumphal arch and nearby museums, the Royal Palace of Laeken with its large greenhouses, and the Basilica of the Sacred Heart.

The Atomium is a symbolic 103-metre (338 ft) tall structure that was built for the 1958 World's Fair. It consists of nine steel spheres connected by tubes, and forms a model of an iron crystal (specifically, a unit cell). The architect A. Waterkeyn devoted the building to science. Next to the Atomium is the Mini-Europe park with 1:25 scale maquettes of famous buildings from across Europe.

Arts

Brussels contains over 80 museums.[82] The Royal Museums of Fine Arts has an extensive collection of various painters, such as Flemish painters like Bruegel, Rogier van der Weyden, Robert Campin, Anthony van Dyck, and Jacob Jordaens. The Magritte Museum houses the world's largest collection of the works of the surrealist René Magritte. Museums dedicated to the national history of Belgium include the BELvue Museum, the Royal Museums of Art and History, and the Royal Museum of the Armed Forces and Military History.

The city has had a renowned artist scene for many years. The famous Belgian surrealist René Magritte, for instance, studied and lived in Brussels, as did the avant-garde dramatist Michel de Ghelderode. The city was also home of the Impressionist painter Anna Boch from the Artist Group Les XX and includes others famous Belgian painters such as Léon Spilliaert and Guy Huygens. The city is also a capital of the comic strip;[2] some treasured Belgian characters are Tintin, Lucky Luke, Cubitus, Gaston and Marsupilami. Throughout the city, walls are painted with large motifs of comic book characters; these murals taken together are known as the Brussels' Comic Book Route. Also, the interiors of some Metro stations are designed by artists. The Belgian Comic Strip Center combines two artistic leitmotifs of Brussels, being a museum devoted to Belgian comic strips, housed in the former Waucquez department store, designed by Victor Horta in the Art Nouveau style.

Brussels is well known for its performing arts scene, with the Kunstenfestivaldesarts, the Kaaitheater and La Monnaie among the most notable institutions. The King Baudouin Stadium is a concert and competition facility with a 50,000 seat capacity, the largest in Belgium. The site was formerly occupied by the Heysel Stadium. Furthermore, the Bozar (Center for Fine Arts) is home to the National Orchestra of Belgium and the Flagey cultural centre hosts the Brussels Philharmonic.

Cuisine

Brussels is known for its local waffle

Brussels is known for its local waffle, its chocolate, its French fries and its numerous types of beers. The Brussels sprout has long been popular in Brussels, and may have originated there.[83]

The gastronomic offer includes approximately 1,800 restaurants, and a number of high quality bars. Belgian cuisine is known among connoisseurs as one of the best in Europe. In addition to the traditional restaurants, there are a large number of cafés, bistros, and the usual range of international fast food chains. The cafés are similar to bars, and offer beer and light dishes; coffee houses are called the Salons de Thé. Also widespread are brasseries, which usually offer a large number of beers and typical national dishes.

Belgian cuisine is characterised by the combination of French cuisine with the more hearty Flemish fare. Notable specialities include Brussels waffles (gaufres) and mussels (usually as "moules frites", served with fries). The city is a stronghold of chocolate and pralines manufacturers with renowned companies like Neuhaus, Leonidas and Godiva. Numerous friteries are spread throughout the city, and in tourist areas, fresh, hot, waffles are also sold on the street.

In addition to the regular selection of Belgian beer, the famous lambic style of beer is predominately brewed in and around Brussels, and the yeasts have their origin in the Senne valley. Kriek, a cherry lambic, enjoys outstanding popularity, as it does in the rest of Belgium. Kriek is available in almost every bar or restaurant.

Sports

R.S.C. Anderlecht fans at the Constant Vanden Stock Stadium.

The stadium now known as the King Baudouin Stadium is the largest in the country and home to the national teams in football and rugby union. It hosted the final of the 1972 UEFA European Football Championship, and the opening game of the 2000 edition. Several European club finals have been held at the ground, including the 1985 European Cup Final which saw 39 deaths due to hooliganism and structural collapse.[84] The King Baudouin Stadium is also home of the annual Memorial Van Damme athletics event, which is part of the IAAF Diamond League. Other important athletics events are the Brussels Marathon and the 20 km of Brussels.

The Brussels Cycling Classic is one of the oldest semi classic bicycle races on the international calendar.

Football

R.S.C. Anderlecht, based in the Constant Vanden Stock Stadium in the Anderlecht municipality, is the most successful Belgian football club in the Belgian Pro League with 33 titles.[85] It has also won the most major European tournaments for a Belgian side. Brussels is also home to Union Saint-Gilloise, the most successful Belgian club before World War II with 11 titles[86] The club was founded in Saint-Gilles but is based in the nearby Forest municipality and currently plays in Second Division. White Star Bruxelles is another football club that plays in second division.

Racing White Daring Molenbeek, based in the Sint-Jans-Molenbeek municipality and often referred to as RWDM, was a very popular football club until it was dissolved in 2002.

Economy

The Brussels Stock Exchange
Further information: Economy of Belgium

Serving as the centre of administration for Europe, Brussels' economy is largely service-oriented. It is dominated by regional and world headquarters of multinationals, by European institutions, by various administrations, and by related services, though it does have a number of notable craft industries, such as the Cantillon Brewery, a lambic brewery founded in 1900.

Brussels has a robust economy. Its GDP per capita is nearly double that of Belgium as a whole,[87] and it has the highest GDP per capita of any NUTS 1 region in the European Union at €62,000 in 2011.[88] That being said, the GDP is boosted by a massive inflow of commuters from neighbouring regions; over half of those who work in Brussels live in Flanders or Wallonia, with 230,000 and 130,000 commuters per day respectively.[89] Not all of the wealth generated in Brussels remains in Brussels itself, and as of December 2013 the unemployment among residents of Brussels is 20.4%.[90]

Education

The Université Libre de Bruxelles

There are several universities in Brussels. The two main universities are the Université Libre de Bruxelles, a French-speaking university with about 20,000 students in three campuses in the city (and two others outside),[91] and the Vrije Universiteit Brussel, a Dutch-speaking university with about 10,000 students.[92] Both universities originate from a single ancestor university founded in 1834, namely the Free University of Brussels, which was split in 1970 at about the same time the Flemish and French Communities gained legislative power over the organization of higher education.

Other universities include the Université Saint-Louis Bruxelles with 2,000 students,[93] a campus of the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven,[94] (offering bachelor & master's degrees in economics & business, law, arts, and architecture, and counting a faculty in the city centre) the Royal Military Academy, a military college established in 1834 by a French colonel[95] and two drama schools founded in 1982: the French-speaking Conservatoire Royal and the Dutch-speaking Koninklijk Conservatorium.[96][97]

Still other universities have campuses in Brussels, such as the Université Catholique de Louvain that has had its medical faculty in the city since 1973.[98] In addition, the University of Kent's Brussels School of International Studies is a specialised postgraduate school offering advanced international studies and Boston University Brussels was established in 1972 and offers master's degrees in business administration and international relations.

Most Brussels pupils between 3 and 18 go to schools organized by the Flemish Community and the French-speaking Community, with roughly 20% going to the first (Flemish) and close to 80% for the French-speaking schools. Due to the post-war international presence in the city, there are also a number of international schools, including the International School of Brussels with 1,450 pupils between 2½ and 18,[99] the British School of Brussels, and the four European Schools, which provide free education for the children of those working in the EU institutions. The combined student population of the four European Schools in Brussels is currently around 10,000.[100]

Transport

Main article: Transport in Brussels
Brussels-South railway station, home to the Eurostar train service to London
Main hall of Brussels-South railway station
High-speed rail networks connect Brussels with other European cities (ICE train in the North station pictured)

Air

Brussels is served by Brussels Airport, located in the nearby Flemish municipality of Zaventem, and by the smaller Brussels South Charleroi Airport, located near Charleroi (Wallonia), some 50 km (30 mi) from Brussels.

Water

Brussels also has its own harbour, the port of Brussels, on the Brussels-Scheldt Maritime Canal located in the northwest of the city. The Brussels-Charleroi Canal connects Brussels with the industrial areas of Wallonia.

Train

The City of Brussels has three main train stations: Brussels South, Central and North, which are amongst the busiest of the country. Brussels South is also served by direct high-speed rail links: to London by the Eurostar train via the Channel Tunnel (1hr 51 min); to Amsterdam by the Thalys and "InterCity-Plus" connections; to Amsterdam, Paris (1hr 50min, 1hr 25 min respectively) as of 6 April 2015, and Cologne by the Thalys; and to Cologne and Frankfurt by the German ICE (2hr 59 min-3hr 16min).

The train rails in Brussels go underground near the centre through the North–South connection, with the Brussels-Central station also being largely underground. The tunnel itself is only six tracks wide at its narrowest point, which often causes congestion and delays due to heavy use of the route.

The City has minor railway stations at Bockstael, Brussels-Chapel, Brussels-Congres, Brussels-Luxembourg, Brussels-Schuman, Brussels-West, Haren, Haren-South, Simonis.

In the Brussels Region there are also railways stations at Berchem-Sainte-Agathe, Boitsfort, Boondael, Bordet (Evere), Etterbeek, Evere, Forest-East, Forest-South, Jette, Meiser (Schaarbeek), Moensberg (Uccle), Saint-Job (Uccle), Schaarbeek, Uccle-Calevoet, Uccle-Stalle, Vivier d'Oie-Diesdelle (Uccle), Merode and Watermael.

City public transport

The Brussels Metro dates back to 1976,[101] but underground lines known as premetro have been serviced by tramways since 1968. A comprehensive bus and tram network also covers the city.

An interticketing system means that a MIVB/STIB ticket holder can use the train or long-distance buses inside the city. A single journey can include multiple stages across the different modes of transport. The commuter services operated by De Lijn, TEC and NMBS/SNCB will in the next few years be augmented by the Brussels RER/GEN network which will connect the capital and surrounding towns.

Since 2003 Brussels has had a car-sharing service operated by the Bremen company Cambio in partnership with the MIVB/STIB and local ridesharing company Taxi Stop. In 2006 shared bicycles were introduced, the scheme was subsequently being taken over by Villo!. In 2012, the Zen Car electric car-sharing scheme was launched in the university and European areas.

Road network

Rue de la Loi/Wetstraat is one of the city's main streets

Brussels has the most congested traffic in North America and Europe according to US traffic information platform Inrix.[102]

In medieval times Brussels stood at the intersection of routes running north-south (the modern Rue Haute/Hoogstraat) and east-west (Chaussée de Gand/Gentsesteenweg-Rue du Marché aux Herbes/Grasmarkt-Rue de Namur/Naamsestraat). The ancient pattern of streets radiating from the Grand Place in large part remains, but has been overlaid by boulevards built over the River Senne, over the city walls and over the railway connection between the North and South Stations.

As one expects of a capital city, Brussels is the hub of the fan of old national roads, the principal ones being clockwise the N1 (N to Breda), N2 (E to Maastricht), N3 (E to Aachen), N4 (SE to Luxembourg) N5 (S to Rheims), N6 (S to Maubeuge), N7 (SW to Rijsel), N8 (W to Koksijde) and N9 (NW to Ostend).[103] Usually named chaussées/steenwegen, these highways normally run in a straight line, but on occasion lose themselves in a maze of narrow shopping streets.

The town is skirted by the European route E19 (N-S) and the E40 (E-W), while the E411 leads away to the SE. Brussels has an orbital motorway, numbered R0 (R-zero) and commonly referred to as the "ring" (French: ring Dutch: ring). It is pear-shaped as the southern side was never built as originally conceived, owing to residents' objections.

The city centre, sometimes known as "the pentagon", is surrounded by an inner ring road, the "small ring" (French: petite ceinture, Dutch: kleine ring ), a sequence of boulevards formally numbered R20 or N0. These were built upon the site of the second set of city walls following their demolition. Metro line 2 runs under much of these. Since June 2015, a number of central boulevards inside the pentagon have become car-free, limiting transit traffic through the old city.[104]

On the eastern side of the city, the R21 (French: grande ceinture, grote ring in Dutch) is formed by a string of boulevards that curves round from Laeken to Uccle. Some premetro stations (see Brussels Metro) were built on that route. A little further out, a stretch numbered R22 leads from Zaventem to Saint-Job.

International relations

Twin towns and sister cities

Brussels is twinned with the following cities:

See also

References

  1. ↑ "Brussels". City-Data.com. Retrieved 10 January 2008.
  2. 1 2 Herbez, Ariel (30 May 2009). "Bruxelles, capitale de la BD". Le Temps (in French) (Switzerland). Archived from the original on 12 June 2011. Retrieved 28 May 2010. Plus que jamais, Bruxelles mérite son statut de capitale de la bande dessinée.
  3. ↑ "Cheap flights to Brussels". Easyjet. Retrieved 1 June 2010.
  4. ↑ Population per municipality on 1 January 2013 (XLS; 607.5 KB)
  5. 1 2 The Belgian Constitution (PDF). Brussels, Belgium: Belgian House of Representatives. May 2014. p. 5. Retrieved 10 September 2015. Article 3: Belgium comprises three Regions: the Flemish Region, the Walloon Region and the Brussels Region. Article 4: Belgium comprises four linguistic regions: the Dutch-speaking region, the French-speaking region, the bilingual region of Brussels-Capital and the German-speaking region.
  6. 1 2 "Brussels-Capital Region: Creation". Centre d'Informatique pour la Région Bruxelloise (Brussels Regional Informatics Center). 2009. Archived from the original on 29 April 2009. Retrieved 5 June 2009. Since 18 June 1989, the date of the first regional elections, the Brussels-Capital Region has been an autonomous region comparable to the Flemish and Walloon Regions. (All text and all but one graphic show the English name as Brussels-Capital Region.)
  7. ↑ Dutch pronunciation: [ˈbrɵsəls ɦoːftˈsteːdələk xəˈʋɛst]. Gewest in isolation is pronounced [ɣəˈʋɛst].
  8. 1 2 The Belgian Constitution (PDF). Brussels, Belgium: Belgian House of Representatives. May 2014. p. 63. Retrieved 10 September 2015. Article 194: The city of Brussels is the capital of Belgium and the seat of the Federal Government.
  9. 1 2 Décret instituant Bruxelles capitale de la Communauté française. Brussels, Belgium: Parliament of the French Community. 4 April 1984. Retrieved 11 September 2015.
  10. 1 2 Decreet betreffende de keuze van Brussel tot hoofdstad van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap (PDF). Brussels, Belgium: Flemish Parliament. 6 March 1984. Retrieved 11 September 2015.
  11. ↑ Statistics Belgium; Population de droit par commune au 1 janvier 2008 (excel-file) at the Wayback Machine (archived 17 September 2008) Population of all municipalities in Belgium on 1 January 2008. Retrieved on 18 October 2008.
  12. ↑ Statistics Belgium; De Belgische Stadsgewesten 2001 (pdf-file) at the Wayback Machine (archived 29 October 2008) Definitions of metropolitan areas in Belgium. The metropolitan area of Brussels is divided into three levels. First, the central agglomeration (geoperationaliseerde agglomeratie) with 1,451,047 inhabitants (2008-01-01, adjusted to municipal borders). Adding the closest surroundings (suburbs, banlieue or buitenwijken) gives a total of 1,831,496. And, including the outer commuter zone (forensenwoonzone) the population is 2,676,701. Retrieved on 18 October 2008.
  13. ↑ "Europe | Country profiles | Country profile: Belgium". BBC News. 14 June 2010. Retrieved 29 June 2010.
  14. 1 2 3 Demey, Thierry (2007). Brussels, capital of Europe. S. Strange (trans.). Brussels: Badeaux. ISBN 2-9600414-2-9.
  15. ↑ "Protocol (No 6) on the location of the seats of the institutions and of certain bodies, offices, agencies and departments of the European Union, Consolidated version of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, OJ C 83, 30.3.2010, p. 265–265". EUR-Lex. 30 March 2010. Retrieved 3 August 2010.
  16. ↑ It should be noted that Brussels is not formally declared capital of the EU, though its position is spelled out in the Treaty of Amsterdam. See the section dedicated to this issue.
  17. ↑ Hughes, Dominic (15 July 2008). "Europe | Analysis: Where now for Belgium?". BBC News. Retrieved 29 June 2010.
  18. ↑ Geert van Istendael Arm Brussel, uitgeverij Atlas, ISBN 90-450-0853-X
  19. ↑ "Brussels History". City-data.com. Retrieved 5 July 2009.
  20. ↑ Jean Baptiste D'Hane, François Huet, P.A. Lenz, H.G. Moke (1837). Nouvelles archives historiques, philosophiques, et littéraires (in French) 1. Gent: C. Annoot- Braeckman. p. 405. Retrieved 11 September 2010.
  21. ↑ (Dutch) Zo ontstond Brussel Archived 20 November 2007 at the Wayback Machine. Vlaamse Gemeenschapscommissie – Commission of the Flemish Community in Brussels
  22. ↑ "Brussels, the capital of Flanders". Flemish Department of Foreign Affairs. Archived from the original on 10 June 2011. Retrieved 6 November 2009.
  23. ↑ "Communes". Centre d'Informatique pour la Région Bruxelloise. 2004. Archived from the original on 6 June 2004. Retrieved 4 August 2008.
  24. 1 2 "Managing across levels of government" (PDF). OECD. 1997. pp. 107, 110. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 August 2008. Retrieved 5 August 2008.
  25. 1 2 Picavet, Georges (29 April 2003). "Municipalities (1795-now)". Georges Picavet. Retrieved 4 August 2008.
  26. ↑ "Brussels Capital-Region". Georges Picavet. 4 June 2005. Retrieved 4 August 2008.
  27. ↑ "Fusie van de 19 Brusselse gemeenten". Retrieved 26 August 2015.
  28. ↑ "De Brusselse Baronieën". Retrieved 26 August 2015.
  29. ↑ (PDF) https://web.archive.org/web/20140812052919/https://www.vub.ac.be/home/academischeopening/archief/0506/Bruxellesvautbienunemesse.pdf. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 August 2014. Retrieved 7 August 2014. Missing or empty |title= (help)
  30. ↑ "The Islamic State of Molenbeek". New York Times. 12 April 2016. Retrieved 13 April 2016.
  31. ↑ "What Molenbeek says about Europe". Today Online. 12 April 2016. Retrieved 13 April 2016.
  32. ↑ "Brussels attacks: Molenbeek's gangster jihadists". BBC. 24 March 2016. Retrieved 13 April 2016.
  33. ↑ "The Belgian neighborhood indelibly linked to jihad". Washington Post. 15 November 2015. Retrieved 13 April 2016.
  34. ↑ "WMolenbeek, Belgium’s ‘Jihad Central’". Washington Post. 19 November 2015. Retrieved 13 April 2016.
  35. ↑ "Beleaguered Molenbeek struggles to fend off jihadist recruiters". The Times of Israel. April 3, 2016. Retrieved 13 April 2016.
  36. ↑ "Molenbeek: Inside Belgium’s seething city of jihad where ISIS are heroes". Express. Nov 25, 2015. Retrieved 13 April 2016.
  37. ↑ "World points to "jihad Capital" Molenbeek". Het Niuewsblad. 16 November 2015. Retrieved 13 April 2016.
  38. ↑ "Wet houdende organisatie van de agglomeraties en de federaties van gemeenten". Belgiëlex.be. FOD Justitie. Retrieved 11 September 2015.
  39. ↑ Procedure contained in art. 138 of the Belgian Constitution
  40. ↑ Procedure in art. 137 of the Belgian Constitution
  41. ↑ Brussels, an international city and European capital Archived 3 August 2010 at the Wayback Machine. Université Libre de Bruxelles Archived 3 August 2010 at the Wayback Machine.
  42. 1 2 Brussels: home to international organisations diplomatie.be
  43. 1 2 E!Sharp magazine, January–February 2007 issue: Article "A tale of two cities".
  44. ↑ Andrew Rettman. "Euobserver.com". Euobserver.com. Retrieved 29 June 2010.
  45. ↑ Leigh Phillips. "Euobserver.com". Euobserver.com. Retrieved 29 June 2010.
  46. 1 2 European Navigator Seat of the European Commission
  47. 1 2 European Commission publication: Europe in Brussels 2007
  48. ↑ Wheatley, Paul (2 October 2006). "The two-seat parliament farce must end". Café Babel. Archived from the original on 10 June 2007. Retrieved 16 July 2007.
  49. ↑ Stark, Christine. "Evolution of the European Council: The implications of a permanent seat" (PDF). Dragoman.org. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 July 2007. Retrieved 12 July 2007.
  50. ↑ Vucheva, Elitsa (5 September 2007). "EU quarter in Brussels set to grow". EU Observer. Retrieved 27 September 2007.
  51. ↑ Isby & Kamps Jr. 1985, p. 13.
  52. ↑ "Site de l'institut météorologique belge". Meteo.be. Retrieved 29 June 2010.
  53. ↑ "Monthly normals for Uccle, Brussels". KMI/IRM. Retrieved 11 June 2012.
  54. ↑ "Studies and statistics". Brussels Institute for Statistics and Analysis. Retrieved 10 April 2016.
  55. ↑ "Très riches et très pauvres". Lalibre.be. Retrieved 12 March 2013.
  56. ↑ "Non-Profit Data". Npdata.be. Retrieved 12 March 2013.
  57. ↑ "Vreemde afkomst 01/01/2012". Npdata.be. Retrieved 12 March 2013.
  58. 1 2 "In België wonen 628.751 moslims(*), 6,0% van de bevolking. In Brussel is dit 25,5%, in Wallonië 4,0%, in Vlaanderen 3,9%," BuG 100 – Bericht uit het Gewisse – 11 September 2008, http://www.npdata.be, (*)Berekend aantal – indicatief cijfer, zie methodologie hieronder
  59. ↑ Janssens, Rudi (2013). BRIO-taalbarometer 3: diversiteit als norm (PDF) (in Dutch) (Brussels Informatie-, Documentatie- en Onderzoekscentrum ed.). Retrieved 26 May 2015.
  60. ↑ "Wallonie – Bruxelles, Le Service de la langue française" (in French). 19 May 1997. Archived from the original on 5 January 2007.
  61. ↑ "Villes, identités et médias francophones: regards croisés Belgique, Suisse, Canada" (in French). University of Laval, Quebec. Archived from the original on 19 June 2009. Retrieved 22 July 2009.
  62. ↑ G. Geerts. "Nederlands in België, Het Nederlands bedreigd en overlevend". Geschiedenis van de Nederlandse taal (in Dutch). M.C. van den Toorn, W. Pijnenburg, J.A. van Leuvensteijn and J.M. van der Horst. Retrieved 22 July 2009.
  63. ↑ (Dutch) "Thuis in gescheiden werelden" – "De migratoire en sociale aspecten van verfransing te Brussel in het midden van de 19e eeuw", BTNG-RBHC, XXI, 1990, 3–4, pp. 383–412, Machteld de Metsenaere, Eerst aanwezend assistent en docent Vrije Universiteit Brussel
  64. ↑ J. Fleerackers, Chief of staff of the Belgian Minister for Dutch culture and Flemish affairs (1973). "De historische kracht van de Vlaamse beweging in België: de doelstellingen van gister, de verwezenlijkingen vandaag en de culturele aspiraties voor morgen". Digitale bibliotheek voor Nederlandse Letteren (in Dutch). Retrieved 22 July 2009.
  65. ↑ "Kort historisch overzicht van het OVV" (in Dutch). Overlegcentrum van Vlaamse Verenigingen. Retrieved 22 July 2009.
  66. ↑ "Bisbilles dans le Grand Bruxelles" (in French). Le Monde. 2 October 2007. Retrieved 22 July 2009.
  67. ↑ "Sint-Stevens-Woluwe: een unicum in de Belgische geschiedenis" (in Dutch). Overlegcentrum van Vlaamse Verenigingen. Retrieved 22 July 2009.
  68. ↑ "Brussels". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 22 July 2009.
  69. ↑ "Bruxelles dans l'oeil du cyclone" (in French). France 2. 14 November 2007. Retrieved 22 July 2009.
  70. ↑ "La Flandre ne prendra pas Bruxelles..." (in French). La Libre Belgique. 28 May 2006.
  71. ↑ The six municipalities with language facilities around Brussels are Wemmel, Kraainem, Wezembeek-Oppem, Sint-Genesius-Rode, Linkebeek and Drogenbos.
  72. ↑ "Une question: partir ou rester?" (in French). La Libre Belgique. 24 January 2005.
  73. ↑ "Position commune des partis démocratiques francophones" (in French). Union des Francophones (UF), Province of Flemish Brabant. Retrieved 22 July 2009.
  74. ↑ "Bruxelles-capitale: une forte identité" (in French). France 2. 14 November 2007. Retrieved 22 July 2009.
  75. ↑ "IS 2007 – Population (Tableaux)". Bruxelles.irisnet.be. Retrieved 9 August 2014.
  76. ↑ "Van autochtoon naar allochtoon". De Standaard (newspaper) online (in Dutch). Retrieved 5 May 2007. Meer dan de helft van de Brusselse bevolking is van vreemde afkomst. In 1961 was dat slechts 7 procent. (More than half of the Brussels' population is of foreign origin. In 1961 this was only 7 percent.)
  77. ↑ Van Parijs, Philippe, Professor of economic and social ethics at the UCLouvain, Visiting Professor at Harvard University and the KULeuven. "Belgium's new linguistic challenges" (PDF). KVS Express (supplement to newspaper De Morgen) March–April 2007: Article from original source (pdf 4.9 MB) pages 34–36 republished by the Belgian Federal Government Service (ministry) of Economy – Directorate–general Statistics Belgium. Archived from the original (pdf 0.7 MB) on 13 June 2007. Retrieved 5 May 2007. – The linguistic situation in Belgium (and in particular various estimations of the population speaking French and Dutch in Brussels) is discussed in detail. Archived 25 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine.
  78. ↑ The Brussels region's 56% residents of foreign origin include several percents of either Dutch people or native speakers of French, thus roughly half of the inhabitants do not speak either French or Dutch as primary language.
  79. ↑ "Population et ménages" (pdf 1.4 MB) (in French). IBSA Cellule statistique – Min. Région Bruxelles-Capitale (Statistical cell – Ministry of the Brussels-Capital Region). Retrieved 5 May 2007.
  80. ↑ "English should be Brussels' official language, Flemish minister says". EurActiv. Retrieved 9 August 2014.
  81. ↑ "Language usage in Brussels (nl)". Retrieved 26 August 2015.
  82. ↑ "Museums in Brussels". Bruxelles.irisnet.be. Archived from the original on 6 June 2010. Retrieved 29 June 2010.
  83. ↑ Oliver, Lynne (11 April 2011). "Food Timeline: Brussels sprouts". Retrieved 9 April 2012.
  84. ↑ Alessandro Del Piero 'turned down Liverpool move due to Heysel' | Metro News. Metro.co.uk (6 September 2012). Retrieved on 12 August 2013.
  85. ↑ Belgium - List of Champions. Rsssf.com. Retrieved on 12 August 2013.
  86. ↑ Belgium - List of Champions. Rsssf.com. Retrieved on 19 February 2014.
  87. ↑ "Gross domestic product per resident, at current prices - Ratio in relation to the total of the Kingdom". National Bank of Belgium. Archived from the original on 8 August 2014. Retrieved 20 April 2014.
  88. ↑ Eurostat (27 February 2014). "GDP per capita in the EU in 2011: seven capital regions among the ten most prosperous" (PDF). Europa web portal. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 March 2014. Retrieved 20 April 2014.
  89. ↑ "Pendelarbeid tussen de gewesten en provincies in België anno 2006". Vlaamse statistieken, strategisch management en surveyonderzoek (in Dutch). FPS Economy Belgium. 2007. Archived from the original on 16 April 2008. Retrieved 17 January 2009.
  90. ↑ "Youth unemployment in Brussels falls under 30%". Flandersnews.be. 6 January 2014. Archived from the original on 9 August 2014. Retrieved 23 April 2014.
  91. ↑ "Presentation of the Université libre de Bruxelles". Université Libre de Bruxelles. Archived from the original on 3 December 2007. Retrieved 9 December 2007.
  92. ↑ "About the University: Culture and History". Vrije Universiteit Brussel. Retrieved 9 December 2007.
  93. ↑ "Institution: Historique". Facultés Universitaires Saint Louis. Archived from the original on 23 December 2007. Retrieved 9 December 2007.
  94. ↑ "KU Leuven organisational chart: KU Leuven, Campus Brussels". Katholieke Universiteit Leuven. Retrieved 11 January 2015.
  95. ↑ "What makes the RMA so special?". Belgian Royal Military Academy. Archived from the original on 28 December 2007. Retrieved 9 December 2007.
  96. ↑ "Petite histoire du Conservatoire royal de Bruxelles". Conservatoire Royal. Retrieved 9 December 2007.
  97. ↑ "Koninklijk Conservatorium Brussel". Koninklijk Conservatorium. Archived from the original on 13 October 2006. Retrieved 9 December 2007.
  98. ↑ "L'histoire de l'UCL à Bruxelles". Université Catholique de Louvain. Archived from the original on 14 November 2007. Retrieved 9 December 2007.
  99. ↑ "ISB Profile". International School of Brussels. Archived from the original on 17 October 2007. Retrieved 9 December 2007.
  100. ↑ "Background". Schola Europaea. Retrieved 9 December 2007.
  101. ↑ "Brussels Metro and Tram Network". Railway Technology. Retrieved 10 March 2016.
  102. ↑ "Brussels and Antwerp have worst traffic". Flanders Today. 27 June 2012. Retrieved 8 December 2013.
  103. ↑ "Belgian N roads". Autosnelwegen.net. Retrieved 29 June 2010.
  104. ↑ "Circulation plan". Archived from the original on 13 August 2015. Retrieved 26 August 2015.
  105. ↑ "Sister Cities". Beijing Municipal Government. Retrieved 23 September 2008.
  106. ↑ "Berlin - City Partnerships". Der Regierende Bürgermeister Berlin. Archived from the original on 21 May 2013. Retrieved 17 September 2013.
  107. ↑ "Medmestno in mednarodno sodelovanje". Mestna občina Ljubljana (Ljubljana City) (in Slovenian). Retrieved 27 July 2013.
  108. ↑ "Mapa Mundi de las ciudades hermanadas". Ayuntamiento de Madrid. Retrieved 22 July 2009.
  109. ↑ "Discover Montreal" (PDF). www.mliesl.com. Muskoka Language International. 2007. Retrieved 2014.
  110. ↑ "Partnerská města HMP" [Prague - Twin Cities HMP]. Portál "Zahraniční vztahy" [Portal "Foreign Affairs"] (in Czech). 18 July 2013. Archived from the original on 25 June 2013. Retrieved 5 August 2013.
  111. ↑ "Protocol and International Affairs". DC Office of the Secretary. Archived from the original on 13 May 2008. Retrieved 12 July 2008.

External links

This article is issued from Wikipedia - version of the Friday, April 29, 2016. The text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share Alike but additional terms may apply for the media files.