Causal structure

This article is about the possible causal relationships among points in a Lorentzian manifold. For classification of Lorentzian manifolds according to the types of causal structures they admit, see Causality conditions.

In mathematical physics, the causal structure of a Lorentzian manifold describes the causal relationships between points in the manifold.

Introduction

In modern physics (especially general relativity) spacetime is represented by a Lorentzian manifold. The causal relations between points in the manifold are interpreted as describing which events in spacetime can influence which other events.

Minkowski spacetime is a simple example of a Lorentzian manifold. The causal relationships between points in Minkowski spacetime take a particularly simple form since the space is flat. See Causal structure of Minkowski spacetime for more information.

The causal structure of an arbitrary (possibly curved) Lorentzian manifold is made more complicated by the presence of curvature. Discussions of the causal structure for such manifolds must be phrased in terms of smooth curves joining pairs of points. Conditions on the tangent vectors of the curves then define the causal relationships.

Tangent vectors

If \,(M,g) is a Lorentzian manifold (for metric g on manifold M) then the tangent vectors at each point in the manifold can be classed into three different types. A tangent vector X is

(Here we use the (+,-,-,-,\cdots) metric signature). A tangent vector is called "non-spacelike" if it is null or timelike.

These names come from the simpler case of Minkowski spacetime (see Causal structure of Minkowski spacetime).

Time-orientability

At each point in M the timelike tangent vectors in the point's tangent space can be divided into two classes. To do this we first define an equivalence relation on pairs of timelike tangent vectors.

If X and Y are two timelike tangent vectors at a point we say that X and Y are equivalent (written X \sim Y) if \,g(X,Y) > 0.

There are then two equivalence classes which between them contain all timelike tangent vectors at the point. We can (arbitrarily) call one of these equivalence classes "future-directed" and call the other "past-directed". Physically this designation of the two classes of future- and past-directed timelike vectors corresponds to a choice of an arrow of time at the point. The future- and past-directed designations can be extended to null vectors at a point by continuity.

A Lorentzian manifold is time-orientable[1] if a continuous designation of future-directed and past-directed for non-spacelike vectors can be made over the entire manifold.

Curves

A path in M is a continuous map \mu : \Sigma \to M where \Sigma is a nondegenerate interval (i.e., a connected set containing more than one point) in \mathbb{R}. A smooth path has \mu differentiable an appropriate number of times (typically C^\infty), and a regular path has nonvanishing derivative.

A curve in M is the image of a path or, more properly, an equivalence class of path-images related by re-parametrisation, i.e. homeomorphisms or diffeomorphisms of \Sigma. When M is time-orientable, the curve is oriented if the parameter change is required to be monotonic.

Smooth regular curves (or paths) in M can be classified depending on their tangent vectors. Such a curve is

The requirements of regularity and nondegeneracy of \Sigma ensure that closed causal curves (such as those consisting of a single point) are not automatically admitted by all spacetimes.

If the manifold is time-orientable then the non-spacelike curves can further be classified depending on their orientation with respect to time.

A chronological, null or causal curve in M is

These definitions only apply to causal (chronological or null) curves because only timelike or null tangent vectors can be assigned an orientation with respect to time.

Causal relations

There are two types of causal relations between points x and y in the manifold M.

These relations are transitive:[3]

and satisfy[3]

For a point x in the manifold M we define[3]

\,I^+(x) = \{ y \in M | x \ll y\}
\,I^-(x) = \{ y \in M | y \ll x\}

We similarly define

\,J^+(x) = \{ y \in M | x \prec y\}
\,J^-(x) = \{ y \in M | y \prec x\}

Points contained in \, I^+(x), for example, can be reached from x by a future-directed timelike curve. The point x can be reached, for example, from points contained in \,J^-(x) by a future-directed non-spacelike curve.

As a simple example, in Minkowski spacetime the set \,I^+(x) is the interior of the future light cone at x. The set \,J^+(x) is the full future light cone at x, including the cone itself.

These sets \,I^+(x) ,I^-(x), J^+(x), J^-(x) defined for all x in M, are collectively called the causal structure of M.

For S a subset of M we define[3]

I^\pm(S) = \bigcup_{x \in S} I^\pm(x)
J^\pm(S) = \bigcup_{x \in S} J^\pm(x)

For S, T two subsets of M we define

Properties

See Penrose, p13.

Topological properties:

Conformal geometry

Two metrics \,g and \hat{g} are conformally related[4] if \hat{g} = \Omega^2 g for some real function \Omega called the conformal factor. (See conformal map).

Looking at the definitions of which tangent vectors are timelike, null and spacelike we see they remain unchanged if we use \,g or \hat{g}. As an example suppose X is a timelike tangent vector with respect to the \,g metric. This means that \,g(X,X) > 0. We then have that \hat{g}(X,X) = \Omega^2 g(X,X) > 0 so X is a timelike tangent vector with respect to the \hat{g} too.

It follows from this that the causal structure of a Lorentzian manifold is unaffected by a conformal transformation.

See also

Notes

  1. Hawking & Israel 1979, p. 255
  2. Penrose 1972, p. 15
  3. 1 2 3 4 Penrose 1972, p. 12
  4. Hawking & Ellis 1973, p. 42

References

Further reading

External links

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