Chandrasekhar limit

The Chandrasekhar limit (/tʃʌndrəˈʃeɪkər/) is the maximum mass of a stable white dwarf star. The limit was first indicated in papers published by Wilhelm Anderson and E. C. Stoner, and was named after Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, the Indian astrophysicist who independently discovered and improved upon the accuracy of the calculation in 1930, at the age of 19, in India. This limit was initially ignored by the community of scientists because such a limit would logically require the existence of black holes, which were considered a scientific impossibility at the time. White dwarfs resist gravitational collapse primarily through electron degeneracy pressure. (By comparison, main sequence stars resist collapse through thermal pressure.) The Chandrasekhar limit is the mass above which electron degeneracy pressure in the star's core is insufficient to balance the star's own gravitational self-attraction. Consequently, white dwarfs with masses greater than the limit would be subject to further gravitational collapse, evolving into a different type of stellar remnant, such as a neutron star or black hole. (However, white dwarfs generally avoid this fate by exploding before they undergo collapse.) Those with masses under the limit remain stable as white dwarfs.[1]

The currently accepted value of the limit is about 1.39 M_\odot (2.765 × 1030 kg).[2][3][4]

Physics

Electron degeneracy pressure is a quantum-mechanical effect arising from the Pauli exclusion principle. Since electrons are fermions, no two electrons can be in the same state, so not all electrons can be in the minimum-energy level. Rather, electrons must occupy a band of energy levels. Compression of the electron gas increases the number of electrons in a given volume and raises the maximum energy level in the occupied band. Therefore, the energy of the electrons will increase upon compression, so pressure must be exerted on the electron gas to compress it, producing electron degeneracy pressure. With sufficient compression, electrons are forced into nuclei in the process of electron capture, relieving the pressure.

Radius–mass relations for a model white dwarf. The green curve uses the general pressure law for an ideal Fermi gas, while the blue curve is for a non-relativistic ideal Fermi gas. The black line marks the ultrarelativistic limit.

In the nonrelativistic case, electron degeneracy pressure gives rise to an equation of state of the form P = K_1 \rho^{5\over 3}, where P is the pressure, \rho is the mass density, and K_1 is a constant. Solving the hydrostatic equation then leads to a model white dwarf which is a polytrope of index 3/2 and therefore has radius inversely proportional to the cube root of its mass, and volume inversely proportional to its mass.[5]

As the mass of a model white dwarf increases, the typical energies to which degeneracy pressure forces the electrons are no longer negligible relative to their rest masses. The velocities of the electrons approach the speed of light, and special relativity must be taken into account. In the strongly relativistic limit, the equation of state takes the form P = K_2 \rho^{4\over 3}. This will yield a polytrope of index 3, which will have a total mass, Mlimit say, depending only on K2.[6]

For a fully relativistic treatment, the equation of state used will interpolate between the equations P = K_1 \rho^{5\over 3} for small ρ and P = K_2 \rho^{4\over 3} for large ρ. When this is done, the model radius still decreases with mass, but becomes zero at Mlimit. This is the Chandrasekhar limit.[7] The curves of radius against mass for the non-relativistic and relativistic models are shown in the graph. They are colored blue and green, respectively. μe has been set equal to 2. Radius is measured in standard solar radii[8] or kilometers, and mass in standard solar masses.

Calculated values for the limit will vary depending on the nuclear composition of the mass.[9] Chandrasekhar[10], eq. (36),[7], eq. (58),[11], eq. (43) gives the following expression, based on the equation of state for an ideal Fermi gas:

M_{\rm limit} = \frac{\omega_3^0 \sqrt{3\pi}}{2}\left ( \frac{\hbar c}{G}\right )^{3/2}\frac{1}{(\mu_e m_H)^2},

where:

As \sqrt{\hbar c/G} is the Planck mass, the limit is of the order of

\frac{M_{Pl}^3}{m_H^2}.

A more accurate value of the limit than that given by this simple model requires adjusting for various factors, including electrostatic interactions between the electrons and nuclei and effects caused by nonzero temperature.[9] Lieb and Yau[12] have given a rigorous derivation of the limit from a relativistic many-particle Schrödinger equation.

History

In 1926, the British physicist Ralph H. Fowler observed that the relationship among the density, energy and temperature of white dwarfs could be explained by viewing them as a gas of nonrelativistic, non-interacting electrons and nuclei which obeyed Fermi–Dirac statistics.[13] This Fermi gas model was then used by the British physicist Edmund Clifton Stoner in 1929 to calculate the relationship among the mass, radius, and density of white dwarfs, assuming them to be homogeneous spheres.[14] Wilhelm Anderson applied a relativistic correction to this model, giving rise to a maximum possible mass of approximately 1.37×1030 kg.[15] In 1930, Stoner derived the internal energy–density equation of state for a Fermi gas, and was then able to treat the mass–radius relationship in a fully relativistic manner, giving a limiting mass of approximately (for μe=2.5) 2.19 · 1030 kg.[16] Stoner went on to derive the pressure–density equation of state, which he published in 1932.[17] These equations of state were also previously published by the Soviet physicist Yakov Frenkel in 1928, together with some other remarks on the physics of degenerate matter.[18] Frenkel's work, however, was ignored by the astronomical and astrophysical community.[19]

A series of papers published between 1931 and 1935 had its beginning on a trip from India to England in 1930, where the Indian physicist Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar worked on the calculation of the statistics of a degenerate Fermi gas.[20] In these papers, Chandrasekhar solved the hydrostatic equation together with the nonrelativistic Fermi gas equation of state,[5] and also treated the case of a relativistic Fermi gas, giving rise to the value of the limit shown above.[6][7][10][21] Chandrasekhar reviews this work in his Nobel Prize lecture.[11] This value was also computed in 1932 by the Soviet physicist Lev Davidovich Landau,[22] who, however, did not apply it to white dwarfs.

Chandrasekhar's work on the limit aroused controversy, owing to the opposition of the British astrophysicist Arthur Eddington. Eddington was aware that the existence of black holes was theoretically possible, and also realized that the existence of the limit made their formation possible. However, he was unwilling to accept that this could happen. After a talk by Chandrasekhar on the limit in 1935, he replied:

The star has to go on radiating and radiating and contracting and contracting until, I suppose, it gets down to a few km radius, when gravity becomes strong enough to hold in the radiation, and the star can at last find peace. … I think there should be a law of Nature to prevent a star from behaving in this absurd way![23]

Eddington's proposed solution to the perceived problem was to modify relativistic mechanics so as to make the law P=K1ρ5/3 universally applicable, even for large ρ.[24] Although Niels Bohr, Fowler, Wolfgang Pauli, and other physicists agreed with Chandrasekhar's analysis, at the time, owing to Eddington's status, they were unwilling to publicly support Chandrasekhar.[25], pp. 110–111 Through the rest of his life, Eddington held to his position in his writings,[26][27][28][29][30] including his work on his fundamental theory.[31] The drama associated with this disagreement is one of the main themes of Empire of the Stars, Arthur I. Miller's biography of Chandrasekhar.[25] In Miller's view:

Chandra's discovery might well have transformed and accelerated developments in both physics and astrophysics in the 1930s. Instead, Eddington's heavy-handed intervention lent weighty support to the conservative community astrophysicists, who steadfastly refused even to consider the idea that stars might collapse to nothing. As a result, Chandra's work was almost forgotten.[25]:150

Applications

The core of a star is kept from collapsing by the heat generated by the fusion of nuclei of lighter elements into heavier ones. At various stages of stellar evolution, the nuclei required for this process will be exhausted, and the core will collapse, causing it to become denser and hotter. A critical situation arises when iron accumulates in the core, since iron nuclei are incapable of generating further energy through fusion. If the core becomes sufficiently dense, electron degeneracy pressure will play a significant part in stabilizing it against gravitational collapse.[32]

If a main-sequence star is not too massive (less than approximately 8 solar masses), it will eventually shed enough mass to form a white dwarf having mass below the Chandrasekhar limit, which will consist of the former core of the star. For more-massive stars, electron degeneracy pressure will not keep the iron core from collapsing to very great density, leading to formation of a neutron star, black hole, or, speculatively, a quark star. (For very massive, low-metallicity stars, it is also possible that instabilities will destroy the star completely.)[33][34][35][36] During the collapse, neutrons are formed by the capture of electrons by protons in the process of electron capture, leading to the emission of neutrinos.[32], pp. 1046–1047. The decrease in gravitational potential energy of the collapsing core releases a large amount of energy which is on the order of 1046 joules (100 foes). Most of this energy is carried away by the emitted neutrinos.[37] This process is believed to be responsible for supernovae of types Ib, Ic, and II.[32]

Type Ia supernovae derive their energy from runaway fusion of the nuclei in the interior of a white dwarf. This fate may befall carbon–oxygen white dwarfs that accrete matter from a companion giant star, leading to a steadily increasing mass. As the white dwarf's mass approaches the Chandrasekhar limit, its central density increases, and, as a result of compressional heating, its temperature also increases. This eventually ignites nuclear fusion reactions, leading to an immediate carbon detonation which disrupts the star and causes the supernova.[38], §5.1.2

A strong indication of the reliability of Chandrasekhar's formula is that the absolute magnitudes of supernovae of Type Ia are all approximately the same; at maximum luminosity, MV is approximately -19.3, with a standard deviation of no more than 0.3.[38], (1) A 1-sigma interval therefore represents a factor of less than 2 in luminosity. This seems to indicate that all type Ia supernovae convert approximately the same amount of mass to energy.

Super-Chandrasekhar mass supernovae

Main article: Champagne Supernova

In April 2003, the Supernova Legacy Survey observed a type Ia supernova, designated SNLS-03D3bb, in a galaxy approximately 4 billion light years away. According to a group of astronomers at the University of Toronto and elsewhere, the observations of this supernova are best explained by assuming that it arose from a white dwarf which grew to twice the mass of the Sun before exploding. They believe that the star, dubbed the "Champagne Supernova" by University of Oklahoma astronomer David R. Branch, may have been spinning so fast that centrifugal force allowed it to exceed the limit. Alternatively, the supernova may have resulted from the merger of two white dwarfs, so that the limit was only violated momentarily. Nevertheless, they point out that this observation poses a challenge to the use of type Ia supernovae as standard candles.[39][40][41]

Since the observation of the Champagne Supernova in 2003, more very bright type Ia supernovae have been observed that are thought to have originated from white dwarfs whose masses exceeded the Chandrasekhar limit. These include SN 2006gz, SN 2007if and SN 2009dc.[42] The super-Chandrasekhar mass white dwarfs that gave rise to these supernovae are believed to have had masses up to 2.4–2.8 solar masses.[42] One way to potentially explain the problem of the Champagne Supernova was considering it the result of an aspherical explosion of a white dwarf. However, spectropolarimetric observations of SN 2009dc showed it had a polarization smaller than 0.3, making the large asphericity theory unlikely.[42]

Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit

After a supernova explosion, a neutron star may be left behind. Like white dwarfs these objects are extremely compact and are supported by degeneracy pressure, but a neutron star is so massive and compressed that electrons and protons have combined to form neutrons, and the star is thus supported by neutron degeneracy pressure instead of electron degeneracy pressure. The limit of neutron degeneracy pressure, analogous to the Chandrasekhar limit, is known as the Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit.

References

  1. ↑ Sean Carroll, Ph.D., Cal Tech, 2007, The Teaching Company, Dark Matter, Dark Energy: The Dark Side of the Universe, Guidebook Part 2 page 44, Accessed Oct. 7, 2013, "...Chandrasekhar limit: The maximum mass of a white dwarf star, about 1.4 times the mass of the Sun. Above this mass, the gravitational pull becomes too great, and the star must collapse to a neutron star or black hole..."
  2. ↑ Israel, edited by S.W. Hawking, W. (1989). Three hundred years of gravitation (1st pbk. ed., with corrections. ed.). Cambridge [Cambridgeshire]: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-37976-8.
  3. ↑ p. 55, How A Supernova Explodes, Hans A. Bethe and Gerald Brown, pp. 51–62 in Formation And Evolution of Black Holes in the Galaxy: Selected Papers with Commentary, Hans Albrecht Bethe, Gerald Edward Brown, and Chang-Hwan Lee, River Edge, New Jersey: World Scientific: 2003. ISBN 981-238-250-X.
  4. ↑ Mazzali, P. A.; Röpke, F. K.; Benetti, S.; Hillebrandt, W. (2007). "A Common Explosion Mechanism for Type Ia Supernovae". Science (PDF) 315 (5813): 825–828. arXiv:astro-ph/0702351v1. Bibcode:2007Sci...315..825M. doi:10.1126/science.1136259. PMID 17289993.
  5. 1 2 The Density of White Dwarf Stars, S. Chandrasekhar, Philosophical Magazine (7th series) 11 (1931), pp. 592–596.
  6. 1 2 The Maximum Mass of Ideal White Dwarfs, S. Chandrasekhar, Astrophysical Journal 74 (1931), pp. 81–82.
  7. 1 2 3 The Highly Collapsed Configurations of a Stellar Mass (second paper), S. Chandrasekhar, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 95 (1935), pp. 207--225.
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  9. 1 2 The Neutron Star and Black Hole Initial Mass Function, F. X. Timmes, S. E. Woosley, and Thomas A. Weaver, Astrophysical Journal 457 (February 1, 1996), pp. 834–843.
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  11. 1 2 On Stars, Their Evolution and Their Stability, Nobel Prize lecture, Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, December 8, 1983.
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  18. ↑ Anwendung der Pauli-Fermischen Elektronengastheorie auf das Problem der Kohäsionskräfte, J. Frenkel, Zeitschrift für Physik 50, #3–4 (March 1928), pp. 234–248. DOI 10.1007/BF01328867.
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  25. 1 2 3 Empire of the Stars: Obsession, Friendship, and Betrayal in the Quest for Black Holes, Arthur I. Miller, Boston, New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2005, ISBN 0-618-34151-X; reviewed at The Guardian: The battle of black holes.
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  38. 1 2 Type IA Supernova Explosion Models, Wolfgang Hillebrandt and Jens C. Niemeyer, Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 38 (2000), pp. 191–230.
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  40. ↑ Champagne Supernova Challenges Ideas about How Supernovae Work, web page, spacedaily.com, accessed 13-I-2007.
  41. ↑ The type Ia supernova SNLS-03D3bb from a super-Chandrasekhar-mass white dwarf star, D. Andrew Howell et al., Nature 443 (September 21, 2006), pp. 308–311; also, arXiv:astro-ph/0609616.
  42. 1 2 3 Hachisu, Izumi; Kato, M.; et al. (2012). "A single degenerate progenitor model for type Ia supernovae highly exceeding the Chandrasekhar mass limit". The Astrophysical Journal 744 (1): 76–79 (Article ID 69). arXiv:1106.3510. Bibcode:2012ApJ...744...69H. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/744/1/69.

Further reading

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