Dog tag

This article is about identification tags worn by military personnel. For the identifying tag worn by pets, see Pet tag. For other uses, see Dog tag (disambiguation).
A pair of blank dog tags on a ball chain

"Dog tags" is an informal term for the identification tags worn by military personnel, because of their resemblance to animal registration tags. The tags are primarily used for the identification of dead and wounded soldiers; they have personal info about the soldiers and convey essential basic medical information, such as blood type[1] and history of inoculations. The tags often indicate religious preference as well. Dog tags are usually fabricated from a corrosion-resistant metal. They commonly contain two copies of the information, either in the form of a single tag that can be broken in half or two identical tags on the same chain. This duplication allows one tag (or half-tag) to be collected from a soldier's body for notification and the second to remain with the corpse when battle conditions prevent it from being immediately recovered.

History

U.S. Army dogs tags from World War II

A kind of dog tag ("signaculum"), was given to the roman legionnaire at the moment of enrolment.[2] The legionnaire "signaculum" was a lead disk with a leather string, worn around the neck,[3] with the name of the recruit and the indication of the legion of which the recruit was part. This procedure, together with enrolment in the list of recruits, was made at the beginning of a four-months probatory period ("probatio"). The recruit got the military status only after the oath of allegiance ("sacramentum"), at the end of "probatio", so that from the legal point of view the "signaculum" was given to a subject who was no more a civilian, but not yet a military.

In more recent times dog tags were provided to Chinese soldiers as early as the mid-19th century. During the Taiping revolt (1851–66), both the Imperialists (i.e., the Chinese Imperial Army regular servicemen) and those Taiping rebels wearing a uniform wore a wooden dog tag at the belt, bearing the soldier's name, age, birthplace, unit, and date of enlistment.[4]

During the American Civil War from 1861–1865, some soldiers pinned paper notes[5] with their name and home address to the backs of their coats. Other soldiers stenciled identification on their knapsacks or scratched it in the soft lead backing of their army belt buckle.

Manufacturers of identification badges recognized a market and began advertising in periodicals. Their pins were usually shaped to suggest a branch of service, and engraved with the soldier's name and unit. Machine-stamped tags were also made of brass or lead with a hole and usually had (on one side) an eagle or shield, and such phrases as "War for the Union" or "Liberty, Union, and Equality". The other side had the soldier's name and unit, and sometimes a list of battles in which he had participated.

Franco-Prussian War

The Prussian Army issued identification tags for its troops at the beginning of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870. They were nicknamed Hundemarken (the German equivalent of "dog tags") and compared to a similar identification system instituted for dogs in the Prussian capital city of Berlin at about the same time.[6]

First World War

A WWI German army dog tag indicating Name, place of birth, battalion, unit and serial number

The British Army introduced identity discs in place of identity cards in 1907, in the form of aluminium discs, typically made at Regimental depots using machines similar to those common at fun fairs, the details being pressed into the thin metal one letter at a time. British Regimental Identity Disk circa 1907

By 1915 the British Army required all soldiers to wear two official tags, both made of compressed fibre (which were more comfortable to wear in hot climates) carrying identical details, again impressed one character at a time.

The tags, one an octagonal green tag punched with two holes for cords, the other a red circular tag punched once, were suspended from the serviceman's neck using cord resembling butcher's twine, being passed through one hole in the octagonal green tag, a much shorter cord used to link the two tags, which could be easily separated by cutting. British Identity Discs 1914-18

On discovering a body with both tags the second could be taken to record the death, others subsequently finding the same body knowing the death either had been (or would soon be) reported, the details on the green tag remaining with the body for the benefit of burial parties who whenever possible would prepare markers.

British and Empire/Commonwealth forces (Australia, Canada, and New Zealand) were issued identification discs of essentially identical basic pattern during the Great War, Second World War and Korea, though official identity discs were frequently supplemented by private-purchase items such as identity bracelets, particularly favoured by sailors who rightly believed the official discs were unlikely to survive long immersion in water. [Imperial War Museum Website http://www.iwm.org.uk/history/identity-tags & Western Front Association Identifying the dead: a Short Study of the Identification Tags of 1914-1918]

The U.S. Army first authorized identification tags in War Department General Order No. 204, dated December 20, 1906, which essentially prescribes the Kennedy identification tag:

An aluminum identification tag, the size of a silver half dollar and of suitable thickness, stamped with the name, rank, company, regiment, or corps of the wearer, will be worn by each officer and enlisted man of the Army whenever the field kit is worn, the tag to be suspended from the neck, underneath the clothing, by a cord or thong passed through a small hole in the tab. It is prescribed as a part of the uniform and when not worn as directed herein will be habitually kept in the possession of the owner. The tag will be issued by the Quartermaster's Department gratuitously to enlisted men and at cost price to officers.

The army changed regulations on July 6, 1916, so that all soldiers were issued two tags: one to stay with the body and the other to go to the person in charge of the burial for record-keeping purposes. In 1918, the army adopted and allotted the serial number system, and name and serial numbers were ordered stamped on the identification tags. (Serial number 1 was assigned to enlisted man Arthur B. Crane of Chicago in the course of his fifth enlistment period.)

World War II "Notched" tags

One of the two identity discs issued by the South African Navy during WW2 with rank, surname, initials, force number and religious affiliation

There is a recurring myth about the notch situated in one end of the dog tags issued to United States Army personnel during World War II, and up until the Vietnam War era. It was rumored that the notch's purpose was that, if a soldier found one of his comrades on the battlefield, he could take one tag to the commanding officer and stick the other between the teeth of the soldier to ensure that the tag would remain with the body and be identified.

In reality, the notch was used with the Model 70 Addressograph Hand Identification Imprinting Machine (a pistol-type imprinter used primarily by the Medical Department during World War II).[7][8] American dogtags of the 1930s through 1970s were produced using the Graphotype system, in which characters are debossed into metal plates. Some tags are still debossed, using earlier equipment, and some are embossed (with raised letters) on computer-controlled equipment.

In the Graphotype process, commonly used commercially from the early 1900s through the 1980s, a debossing machine was used to stamp characters into metal plates; the plates could then be used to repetitively stamp such things as addresses onto paper in the same way that a typewriter functions, except that a single stroke of the printer could produce a block of text rather than requiring each character to be printed individually. The debossing process creates durable, easily legible metal plates, well-suited for military identification tags, leading to adoption of the system by the American military. It was also realized that debossed tags can function the same way the original Graphotype plates do.

The Model 70 took advantage of this fact, and was intended to rapidly print all of the information from a soldier's dogtag directly onto medical and personnel forms, with a single squeeze of the trigger. However, this requires that the tag being inserted with the proper orientation (stamped characters facing down), and it was believed that battlefield stress could lead to errors. To force proper orientation of the tags, the tags are produced with a notch, and there is a locator tab inside the Model 70 which prevents the printer from operating if the tag is inserted with the notch in the wrong place (as it is if the tag is upside down).

This feature was not as useful in the field as had been hoped, however, due to adverse conditions such as weather, dirt and dust, water, etc. In addition, the Model 70 resembled a pistol, thus attracting the attention of snipers (who might assume that a man carrying a pistol was an officer). As a result, use of the Model 70 hand imprinter by field medics was rapidly abandoned (as were most of the Model 70s themselves), and eventually the specification that tags include the locator notch was removed from production orders. Existing stocks of tags were used until depleted, and in the 1960s it was not uncommon for a soldier to be issued one tag with the notch and one tag without. Notched tags are still in production, to satisfy the needs of hobbyists, film production, etc., while the Model 70 imprinter has become a rare collector's item.

It appears instructions that would confirm the notch's mythical use were issued at least unofficially by the Graves Registration Service during the Vietnam War to Army troops headed overseas.[9]

Dog tags are traditionally part of the makeshift battlefield memorials soldiers created for their fallen comrades. The casualty's rifle with bayonet affixed is stood vertically atop the empty boots, with the helmet over the rifle's stock. The dog tags hang from the rifle's handle or trigger guard.

Non-military usage

Medical condition identification

Some tags (along with similar items such as MedicAlert bracelets) are used also by civilians to identify their wearers and specify them as having health problems that may
(a) suddenly incapacitate their wearers and render them incapable of providing treatment guidance (as in the cases of heart problems, epilepsy, diabetic coma, accident or major trauma) and/or
(b) interact adversely with medical treatments, especially standard or "first-line" ones (as in the case of an allergy to common medications) and/or
(c) provide in case of emergency ("ICE") contact information and/or
(d) state a religious, moral, or other objection to artificial resuscitation, if a first responder attempts to administer such treatment when the wearer is non-responsive and thus unable to warn against doing so.

Military personnel in some jurisdictions may wear a supplementary medical information tag.

Fashion

Dog tags have recently found their way into youth fashion by way of military chic. Originally worn as a part of a military uniform by youth wishing to present a tough or militaristic image, dog tags have since seeped out into wider fashion circles. They may be inscribed with a person's details, their beliefs or tastes, a favorite quote, or may bear the name or logo of a band or performer.

Since the late 1990s, custom dog tags have been fashionable amongst musicians (particularly rappers), and as a marketing give-away item. Numerous companies offer customers the opportunity to create their own personalized dog tags with their own photos, logos, and text. Even high-end jewelers have featured gold and silver dog tags encrusted with diamonds and other jewels.

Variations by country

Austria

The Austrian Bundesheer utilized a single long, rectangular tag, with oval ends, stamped with blood group & Rh factor at the end, with ID number underneath. Two slots and a hole stamped beneath the nunicew the tag to be broken in half, and the long bottom portion has both the ID number and a series of holes which allows the tag to be inserted into a dosimeter. This has been replaced with a more conventional, wider and rounded rectangle which can still be halved, but lacks the dosimeter reading holes.

Australia

The Australian Defence Force issues soldiers two tags of different shapes: Number 1 Tag (the octagonal shaped disc) and Number 2 Tag (the circular disc). The format is as follows:

Example:

The information is printed exactly the same on both discs. In the event of a casualty, the circular tag is removed from the body.

Belgium

Belgian Forces identity tags are, like the Canadian and Norwegian, designed to be broken in two in case of fatality; the lower half is returned to Belgian Defence tail, while the upper half remains on the body. The tags contain the following information:

Canada

Canadian Forces ID Disk. Name and service number are redacted.

Canadian Forces identity discs (abbreviated "I discs") are designed to be broken in two in the case of fatality; the lower half is returned to National Defence Headquarters with the member's personal documents, while the upper half remains on the body. The tags contain the following information:[10]

Before the Service Number was introduced in the 1990s, military personnel were identified on the I discs (as well as other documents) by their Social Insurance Number.

China

The People's Liberation Army issues two long, rectangular tags. All information is stamped in Simplified Chinese:

Colombia

The Ejército Nacional de Colombia uses long, rectangular metal tags with oval ends tags stamped with the following information:

Duplicate tags are issued. Often, tags are issued with a prayer inscribed on the reverse.

Cyprus

In Cyprus, identification tags include the following information:

Denmark

The military of Denmark use dog tags made from small, rectangular metal plates.

Danish military dog tag

The tag is designed to be broken into two pieces each with the following information stamped onto it:

Additionally, the right hand side of each half-tag is engraved 'DANMARK', Danish for DENMARK.[11] Starting in 1985, the individual's service number (which is the same as the social security number) is included on the tag. In case the individual dies, the lower half-tag is supposed to be collected, while the other will remain with the corpse. In the army, navy, and air force but not in the national guard, the individual's blood type is indicated on the lower half-tag only, since this information becomes irrelevant if the individual dies. In 2009, Danish dog tag were discontinued for conscripts.

East Germany

The Nationale Volksarmee used a tag nearly identical to that used by both the Wehrmacht and the West German Bundeswehr. The oval aluminum tag was stamped "DDR" (Deutsche Demokratische Republik) above the personal ID number; this information was repeated on the bottom half, which was intended to be broken off in case of death. Oddly, the tag was not worn, but required to be kept in a plastic sleeve in the back of the WDA identity booklet.

Ecuador

The Placas de identificación de campaña consists of two long, rectangular steel or aluminum tags with rounded corners and a single hole punched in one end. It is suspended by a US-type ball chain, with a shorter chain for the second tag. The information on the tag is:

Estonia

Estonian dog tags are designed to be broken in two. The dog tag is a metallic rounded rectangle suspended by a ball chain. Information consists of four fields:

Example:

Finland

Blank Finnish dog tag

In the Finnish Defence Forces, dog tags (sometimes called raatolaatta; "corpse plaque"/"corpse plate"-) are also designed to be broken in two; however, the only text on it is the personal identification number and the letters SF (rarely FI), which stands for Suomi Finland, within a tower stamped atop of the upper half.

France

France issues either a metallic rounded rectangle (army) or disk (navy), designed to be broken in half, bearing family name & first name above the ID number.

Germany

Frontside of a German ID tag from 1961

German Bundeswehr ID tags are an oval-shaped disc designed to be broken in half. The two sides contain different information which are mirrored upside-down on the lower half of the ID tag. They feature the following information on segmented and numbered fields:

On the front

On the back

Greece

In Greece, identification tags include the following information:

Hungary

The Hungarian army dog tag is made out of steel, forming a 25×35 mm tag designed to split diagonally. Both sides contain the same information: the soldier's personal identity code, blood group and the word HUNGARIA. Some may not have the blood group on them. These are only issued to soldiers who are serving outside of the country. If the soldier should die, one side is removed and kept for the army's official records, while the other side is left attached to the body.

Iraq

The Saddam-era Iraqi Army utilized a single, long, rectangular metal tag with oval ends, inscribed (usually by hand) with Name and Number or Unit, and occasionally Blood Type.

Israel

Dog tags of the Israel Defense Forces are designed to be broken in two. The information appears in three lines (twice):

Another dog tag is kept inside the military boot in order to identify dead soldiers.

Originally the IDF issued two circular aluminum tags (1948 – late 1950s) stamped in three lines with serial number, family name, and first name. The tags were threaded together through a single hole onto a cord worn around the neck.

Japan

Japan follows a similar system to the US Army for its Self Defence Force personnel, and the appearance of the tags is similar, although laser etched. The exact information order is as follows.

Malaysia

Malaysian Armed Forces have two identical oval tags with this information:

If more information needed, another two oval wrist tags are provided. The term wrist tags can be used to refer to the bracelet-like wristwatch. The additional tags only need to be worn on the wrist, with the main tags still on the neck. All personnel are allowed to attach a small religious pendant or locket; this makes a quick identifiable reference for their funeral services.

Mexico

The Ejército de Mexico uses a single long, rectangular metal tag with oval ends, embossed with Name, serial number, and blood type plus Rh factor.

Netherlands

Military of the Netherlands identity tags, like the Canadian and Norwegian ones, are designed to be broken in two in case of a fatality; the lower end is returned to Dutch Defence Headquarters, while the upper half remains on the body. There is a difference in the Army and Airforce service number and the Navy service number:

The tags contain the following information:

Norway

Norwegian dog tags are designed to be broken in two like the Canadian version:

Poland

The first dog tags were issued in Poland following the order of the General Staff of December 12, 1920. The earliest design (dubbed kapala in Polish, more properly called "kapsel legitymacyjny" - meaning "identification cap") consisted of a tin-made 30×50 mm rectangular frame and a rectangular cap fitting into the frame. Soldiers' details were filled in a small ID card placed inside the frame, as well as on the inside of the frame itself. The dog tag was similar to the tags used by the Austro-Hungarian Army during World War I. In case the soldier died, the frame was left with his body, while the lid was returned to his unit together with a note on his death. The ID card was handed over to the chaplain or the rabbi.

In 1928, a new type of dog tag was proposed by gen. bryg. Stanisław Rouppert, Poland's representative at the International Red Cross. It was slightly modified and adopted in 1931 under the name of Nieśmiertelnik wz. 1931 (literally, Immortalizer mark 1931). The new design consisted of an oval piece of metal (ideally steel, but in most cases aluminum alloy was used), roughly 40 by 50 millimeters. There were two notches on both sides of the tag, as well as two rectangular holes in the middle to allow for easier breaking of the tag in two halves. The halves contained the same set of data and were identical, except the upper half had two holes for a string or twine to go through. The data stamped on the dog tag included:

Sometimes the rank of the soldier was added to the reverse, and most members of the medical corps had a tiny cross stamped near the string holes, regardless of their religion.

Rhodesia

The former Republic of Rhodesia used two WW2 British-style compressed asbestos fiber tags, a No. 1 octagonal (green) tag and a No. 2 circular (red) tag, stamped with identical information. The red tag was supposedly fireproof and the green tag rotproof. The following information was stamped on the tags: Number, Name, Initials, & Religion; Blood Type was stamped on reverse. The air force and BSAP often stamped their service on the reverse side above the blood group.

Many soldiers state they were issued blank tags and told to punch the information in themselves.

Russian Federation

Russian dog tag

The Russian Armed Forces use oval metal tags, similar to the dog tags of the Soviet Army. Each tag contains the title 'ВС РОССИИ' (Russian for 'Armed Forces of Russia') and the individual's alphanumeric number, as shown on the photo.

Singapore

The Singapore Armed Forces-issued dog tags are inscribed (not embossed) with up to four items:

The dog tags consist of two metal pieces, one oval with two holes and one round with one hole. A synthetic lanyard is threaded through both holes in the oval piece and tied around the wearer's neck. The round piece is tied to the main loop on a shorter loop.

South Africa

The former South African Defense Force used two long, rectangular aluminum tags with oval ends, stamped with serial number, name and initials, religion, and blood type.

South Korea

The South Korean Army issues two long, rectangular tags with oval ends, stamped (in Korean lettering) with "Yuk-Gun" (English: Army) above a personal number, with the name below that and the blood group at the bottom.

South Vietnam

The South Vietnamese Army used two American-style dog tags. Some tags added religion, e.g., Công Giáo for Catholic. They were stamped or inscribed with:

Soviet Union

During World War II, the Red Army did not issue metal dog tags to its troops. They were issued small ebony cylinders containing a slip of paper with a soldier's s particulars written on it. These do not hold up as well as metal dog tags.[12] After World War II, the Soviet Army used oval metal tags, similar to today's dog tags of the Russian Armed forces. Each tag contains the title 'ВС СССР' (Russian for 'USSR Armed Forces') and the individual's alphanumeric number.

Spain

Issues a single metal oval, worn vertically, stamped "ESPAÑA" above and below the 3-slot horizontal break line. It is stamped in 4 lines with:

Sweden

Swedish government issue identification tag (1970s)

Swedish identification tags are designed to be able to break apart. The information on them was prior to 2010:

Swedish dog tags issued to troops after 2010 are, for personal security reasons, only marked with personal identity number.

During the Cold War dog tags were issued to everyone, often soon after birth, since the threat of total war also meant the risk of severe civilian casualties. However in 2010, the Swedish government decided that the dog tags were not needed anymore.

Switzerland

Swiss Armed Forces ID tag is an oval shaped non reflective plaque, containing the following information:

On the back side the letters CH standing for (Confoederatio Helvetica) are engraved next to a Swiss cross.

United Kingdom

World War II fiber disc type of dog tag

The British Armed Forces currently utilise two circular non-reflecting stainless steel tags engraved with the "Big 6":

  1. Blood group
  2. Service Number
  3. Last name (Surname)
  4. Initials
  5. "M" for Male, "F" for Female
  6. Religion (Abbreviated, e.g; R.C - Roman Catholic)
  7. RAF (if in the Royal Air force. The RAF is the only service to mark tags on line 6)

The disks are suspended from one long chain (24 inches long) and one short chain (4.5 inches long)

During World War One and Two, service personnel were issued pressed fiber identity disks, one green octagonal shaped disc, and a red round disc (some army units issued a second red round disk to be attached to the service respirator). The identity disks were hand stamped with the surname, initials, service number and religion of the holder and if in the Royal Air Force, the initials RAF. The disks were worn around the neck on a 38" length of cotton cord, this was often replaced by the wearer with a leather bootlace. One tag was suspended below the main tag.

From 1960 these were replaced with stainless steel ID tags on a green nylon cord, two circular and one oval. The oval was withdrawn around 1990.

United States

An American dog tag showing the recipient's last name, first name, Social Security number, blood type, and religion.

Tags are properly known as identification tags; the term "dog tags" has never been used in regulations.[13]

A persistent rumor is that debossed (imprinted with stamped in letters) dog tags were issued from World War II till the end of the Vietnam War and that currently the U.S. Armed Forces is issuing embossed (imprinted with raised letters) dog tags. In actuality, the U.S. Armed Forces issues dog tags with both types of imprinting, depending on the machine used at a given facility. The military issued 95% of their identification tags up until recently (within the past 10 years) with debossed text.[14]

The U.S. Armed Forces typically carry two identical oval dog tags containing:

U.S. Air Force (Format 1)
U.S. Air Force (Format 2)
U.S. Marine Corps
U.S. Navy
U.S. Army
U.S. Coast Guard

Religious designation

During World War II, an American dog tag could indicate only one of three religions through the inclusion of one letter: "P" for Protestant, "C" for Catholic, or "H" for Jewish (from the word, "Hebrew"),[18] or (according to at least one source) "NO" to indicate no religious preference.[19] Army regulations (606-5) soon included X and Y in addition to P, C, and H: the X indicating any religion not included in the first three, and the Y indicating either no religion or a choice not to list religion.[20] By the time of the Vietnam War, some IDs spelled out the broad religious choices such as PROTESTANT and CATHOLIC, rather than using initials, and also began to show individual denominations such as "METHODIST" or "BAPTIST."[21] Tags did vary by service, however, such as the use of "CATH," not "CATHOLIC" on some Navy tags. For those with no religious affiliation and those who chose not to list an affiliation, either the space for religion was left blank or the words "NO PREFERENCE" or "NO RELIGIOUS PREF" were included.[21]

Although American dog tags include the recipient's religion as a way of ensuring that religious needs will be met, some personnel have them reissued without religious affiliation listed—or keep two sets, one with the designation and one without—out of fear that identification as a member of a particular religion could increase the danger to their welfare or their lives if they fell into enemy hands. Some Jewish personnel avoided flying over German lines during WWII with ID tags that indicated their religion, and some Jewish personnel avoid the religious designation today out of concern that they could be captured by extremists who are anti-Semitic.[19][22] Additionally, when American troops were first sent to Saudi Arabia during the Gulf War there were allegations that some U.S. military authorities were pressuring Jewish military personnel to avoid listing their religions on their ID tags.[23]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ U.S. Soldiers "tagged" for blood transfusion, Popular Science, February 1942, p71, Scanned by Google Books: http://books.google.com/books?id=pScDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA71-IA1
  2. ↑ "Il Giuramento romano". Imperium Romanum. Retrieved March 25, 2016.
  3. ↑ Southern, Dixon (1996). The Late Roman Army. Batsford. pp. 74–75.
  4. ↑ Heath I., Perry M. The Taping rebellion 1851-66; Men-at-arm series 275; Osprey 1994
  5. ↑ McCormick, David (2012). Inventing Military Dog Tags.
  6. ↑ Law, Clive M. Article in Military Artifact, Service Publications
  7. ↑ , retrieved 22 December 2009
  8. ↑ Barbara Mikkelson. "Notch for the Faint Hearted", Snopes.com, 2 August 2007, retrieved 12 September 2007
  9. ↑ Col. David G. Fitz-Enz (Ret.): Why A Soldier? A Signal Corpsman's Tour from Vietnam to the Moscow Hotline, page 166. Ballantine, 2000. ISBN 0-8041-1938-4
  10. ↑ Canadian Forces Administrative Order 26-4 – Identity Discs Canadian Forces Finance & Corporate Services website
  11. ↑ http://www.armytags.dk/tegn.php?id=0
  12. ↑ Ash, Lucy (January 14, 2014). "Digging for their lives: Russia's volunteer body hunters". BBC News Online. Retrieved May 31, 2015.
  13. ↑ Cucolo, Ginger. "Dog Tags: History, Stories & Folklore of Military Identification". The Library of Congress Webcasts. The Library of Congress. Retrieved 30 March 2016. Never being called such in regulations, the “dog tag” has forever imprinted itself on the serving individual's mind and the tag they wear.
  14. ↑ http://www.dogtagsrus.com/embossed-debossed.htm
  15. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 "AFI 36-3103" (PDF). 1 May 1997.
  16. 1 2 3 4 5 United States Marine Corps (14 July 2000). "MCO P1070.12K" (PDF). United States Department of the Navy. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 9, 2008. Retrieved 9 April 2008.
  17. ↑ Bushatz, Amy (8 December 2015). "In Major Change, Army Removes Social Security Numbers from Dog Tags". Military.com. Retrieved 8 December 2015. U.S. Army dog tags will no longer include soldiers’ Social Security numbers, the Army announced on Tuesday, ending a more than 40-year identification system
  18. ↑ www.history.navy.mil, retrieved May 30, 2011.
  19. 1 2 www.blitzkriegbaby.de, retrieved May 30, 2011.
  20. ↑ Non-commissioned officers guide, 4th edition, pg. 212.
  21. 1 2 www.mooremilitaria.com, retrieved May 30, 2011.
  22. ↑ www.jewishjournal.com, retrieved May 30, 2011.
  23. ↑ www.ajcarchives, pages 178–179, retrieved May 30, 2011.

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