E-book

Amazon's Kindle Keyboard e-reader displaying an e-book

As a generic term, an electronic book (variously: e-book, eBook, e-Book, ebook, digital book or e-edition) or a digital book[1] is a book-publication in digital form, consisting of text, images, or both, readable on computers or other electronic devices.[2] Although sometimes defined as "an electronic version of a printed book",[3] many e-books exist without any printed equivalent. Commercially produced and sold e-books are usually intended to be read on dedicated e-readers. However, almost any sophisticated electronic device that features a controllable viewing screen, including computers, tablets and smartphones can also be used to read e-books. Nowadays, both print as well as e-book selling is moving to the web. For instance, in the United States of America more “books are published online than distributed in hard copy in book shops”. The main reasons that people are buying books online are prices, comfort and selection process. Notwithstanding that most people appreciate higher regular “bricks & mortar” bookshops, “yet almost every single one of us is buying books online”[4]. Based on this information it is almost certain that the e-publishing will soon overtake traditional publishing.

E-book reading is increasing in the US; by 2014 28% of adults had read an e-book, compared to 23% in 2013. This is increasing because 50% of American adults by 2014 had a dedicated device, either an e-reader or a tablet, compared to 30% owning such a device by the end of 2013.[5]

History

The Readies (1930)

The idea of the e-reader viewing e-books came to Bob Brown after watching his first "talkie" (movie with sound). In 1930, he wrote a book on this idea and titled it The Readies, playing off the idea of the "talkie".[6] In his book, Brown says movies have outmaneuvered the book by creating the "talkies" and, as a result, reading should find a new medium: "A machine that will allow us to keep up with the vast volume of print available today and be optically pleasing".

Although Brown came up with the idea intellectually in the 1930s, early commercial e-readers did not follow his model. Nevertheless, Brown in many ways predicted what e-readers would become and what they would mean to the medium of reading. In an article Jennifer Schuessler writes, "The machine, Brown argued, would allow readers to adjust the type size, avoid paper cuts and save trees, all while hastening the day when words could be ‘recorded directly on the palpitating ether.’"[7] He felt the e-reader should bring a completely new life to the medium of reading. Schuessler relates it to a DJ spinning bits of old songs to create a beat or an entirely new song as opposed to just a remix of a familiar song.[7]

Candidates for the first e-book inventor

The inventor of the first e-book is not widely agreed upon. Some notable candidates include the following:

Ángela Ruiz Robles (1949)

In 1949, Ángela Ruiz Robles, a teacher from Galicia, Spain, patented in her country the first electronic book, la Enciclopedia Mecánica, or the Mechanical Encyclopedia. Her idea behind the device was to decrease the number of books that her pupils carried to the school.[8]

Roberto Busa (late 1949 – 1970)

The first e-book may be the Index Thomisticus, a heavily annotated electronic index to the works of Thomas Aquinas, prepared by Roberto Busa beginning in 1949 and completed in the 1970s.[9] Although originally stored on a single computer, a distributable CD-ROM version appeared in 1989. However, this work is sometimes omitted; perhaps because the digitized text was a means to studying written texts and developing linguistic concordances, rather than as a published edition in its own right.[10] In 2005, the Index was published online.[11]

Doug Engelbart and Andries van Dam (1960s)

Alternatively, some historians consider electronic books to have started in the early 1960s, with the NLS project headed by Doug Engelbart at Stanford Research Institute (SRI), and the Hypertext Editing System and FRESS projects headed by Andries van Dam at Brown University.[12][13][14] Augment ran on specialized hardware, while FRESS ran on IBM mainframes. FRESS documents were structure-oriented rather than line-oriented, and were formatted dynamically for different users, display hardware, window sizes, and so on, as well as having automated tables of contents, indexes, and so on. All these systems also provided extensive hyperlinking, graphics, and other capabilities. Van Dam is generally thought to have coined the term "electronic book",[15][16] and it was established enough to use in an article title by 1985.[17]

FRESS was used for reading extensive primary texts online, as well as for annotation and online discussions in several courses, including English Poetry and Biochemistry. Brown faculty made extensive use of FRESS; for example the philosopher Roderick Chisholm used it to produce several of his books. Thus in the Preface to Person and Object (1979) he writes "The book would not have been completed without the epoch-making File Retrieval and Editing System..."[18]

Brown University’s work in electronic book systems continued for many years, including US Navy funded projects for electronic repair-manuals;[19] a large-scale distributed hypermedia system known as InterMedia;[20] a spinoff company Electronic Book Technologies that built DynaText, the first SGML-based book-reader system; and the Scholarly Technology Group's extensive work on the still-prevalent Open eBook standard.

Michael Hart (left) and Gregory Newby (right) of Project Gutenberg, 2006

Michael S. Hart (1971)

Despite the extensive earlier history, several publications report Michael S. Hart as the inventor of the e-book.[21][22][23] In 1971, the operators of the Xerox Sigma V mainframe at the University of Illinois gave Hart extensive computer-time. Seeking a worthy use of this resource, he created his first electronic document by typing the United States Declaration of Independence into a computer in plain text.[24] Hart planned to create documents using plain text to make them as easy as possible to download and view on devices.

Early e-book implementations

After Hart first adapted the Declaration of Independence into an electronic document in 1971, Project Gutenberg was launched to create electronic copies of more texts - especially books.[24]

Another early e-book implementation was the desktop prototype for a proposed notebook computer, the Dynabook, in the 1970s at PARC: a general-purpose portable personal computer capable of displaying books for reading.[25]

First portable electronic book

In 1980 the Department of Defense began concept development for a portable electronic delivery device for technical maintenance information called project PEAM, the Portable Electronic Aid for Maintenance. Detailed specifications were completed in FY 82, and prototype development began with Texas Instruments that same year. Four prototypes were produced and delivered for testing in 1986. Tests were completed in 1987. The final summary report was produced by the US Army research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences in 1989 authored by Robert Wisher and J. Peter Kincaid.[26]

A patent application for the PEAM device [27] was submitted by Texas Instruments titled "Apparatus for delivering procedural type instructions" was submitted Dec 4, 1985 listing John K. Harkins and Stephen H. Morriss as inventors.

In 1992, Sony launched the Data Discman, an electronic book reader that could read e-books that were stored on CDs. One of the electronic publications that could be played on the Data Discman was called The Library of the Future.[28]

Early e-books were generally written for specialty areas and a limited audience, meant to be read only by small and devoted interest groups. The scope of the subject matter of these e-books included technical manuals for hardware, manufacturing techniques, and other subjects. In the 1990s, the general availability of the Internet made transferring electronic files much easier, including e-books.

E-book formats

Reading an e-book on public transit

As e-book formats emerged and proliferated, some garnered support from major software companies, such as Adobe with its PDF format that was introduced in 1993.[29] Different e-readers followed different formats, most of them specializing in only one format, thereby fragmenting the e-book market even more. Due to the exclusiveness and limited readerships of e-books, the fractured market of independent publishers and specialty authors lacked consensus regarding a standard for packaging and selling e-books.

However, in the late 1990s, a consortium formed to develop the Open eBook format as a way for authors and publishers to provide a single source-document which many book-reading software and hardware platforms could handle. Open eBook as defined required subsets of XHTML and CSS; a set of multimedia formats (others could be used, but there must also be a fallback in one of the required formats), and an XML schema for a "manifest", to list the components of a given e-book, identify a table of contents, cover art, and so on. This format led to the open format EPUB. Google Books has converted many public domain works to this open format.[30]

In 2010, e-books continued to gain in their own specialist and underground markets. Many e-book publishers began distributing books that were in the public domain. At the same time, authors with books that were not accepted by publishers offered their works online so they could be seen by others. Unofficial (and occasionally unauthorized) catalogs of books became available on the web, and sites devoted to e-books began disseminating information about e-books to the public.[31] Nearly two-thirds of the U.S. Consumer e-book publishing market are controlled by the "Big Five". The "Big Five" publishers include: Hachette, HarperCollins, Macmillan, Penguin Random House and Simon & Schuster.[32]

Libraries

US Libraries began providing free e-books to the public in 1998 through their web sites and associated services,[33] although the e-books were primarily scholarly, technical or professional in nature, and could not be downloaded. In 2003, libraries began offering free downloadable popular fiction and non-fiction e-books to the public, launching an e-book lending model that worked much more successfully for public libraries.[34] The number of library e-book distributors and lending models continued to increase over the next few years. From 2005 to 2008 libraries experienced 60% growth in e-book collections.[35] In 2010, a Public Library Funding and Technology Access Study[36] found that 66% of public libraries in the US were offering e-books,[37] and a large movement in the library industry began seriously examining the issues related to lending e-books, acknowledging a tipping point of broad e-book usage.[38] However, some publishers and authors have not endorsed the concept of electronic publishing, citing issues with demand, piracy and proprietary devices.[39] In a survey of interlibrary loan librarians it was found that 92% of libraries held ebooks in their collections and that 27% of those libraries had negotiated interlibrary loan rights for some of their ebooks. This survey found significant barriers to conducting interlibrary loan for e-books.[40] Demand-driven acquisition (DDA) has been around for a few years in public libraries, which allows vendors to streamline the acquisition process by offering to match a library's selection profile to the vendor's e-book titles.[41] The library's catalog is then populated with records for all the e-books that match the profile.[41] The decision to purchase the title is left to the patrons, although the library can set purchasing conditions such as a maximum price and purchasing caps so that the dedicated funds are spent according to the library's budget.[41] The 2012 meeting of the Association of American University Presses included a panel on patron-drive acquisition (PDA) of books produced by university presses based on a preliminary report by Joseph Esposito, a digital publishing consultant who has studied the implications of PDA with a grant from the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation.[42]

Challenges

Although the demand for e-book services in libraries has grown, difficulties keep libraries from providing the eBooks.[43] Publishers will sell e-books to libraries, but they only have a limited license to the book in most cases. This means the library does not own the electronic text but that they can circulate it for either a certain period of time or a certain amount of check outs, or both. When a library purchases a e-book license, the cost is three times what it would be for a personal consumer.[43]

Archival storage

The Internet Archive and Open Library offers over 6,000,000 fully accessible public domain e-books.

Dedicated hardware readers and mobile reader software

Main article: E-reader
The BEBook e-reader

An e-reader, also called an e-book reader or e-book device, is a mobile electronic device that is designed primarily for the purpose of reading e-books and digital periodicals. An e-reader is similar in form, but more limited in purpose than a tablet. In comparison to tablets, many e-readers are better than tablets for reading because they are more portable, have better readability in sunlight and have longer battery life.[44]

In July 2010, online bookseller Amazon.com reported sales of e-books for its proprietary Kindle outnumbered sales of hardcover books for the first time ever during the second quarter of 2010, saying it sold 140 e-books for every 100 hardcover books, including hardcovers for which there was no digital edition.[45] By January 2011, e-book sales at Amazon had surpassed its paperback sales.[46] In the overall US market, paperback book sales are still much larger than either hardcover or e-book; the American Publishing Association estimated e-books represented 8.5% of sales as of mid-2010, up from 3% a year before.[47] At the end of the first quarter of 2012, e-book sales in the United States surpassed hardcover book sales for the first time.[48]

In Canada, The Sentimentalists won the prestigious national Giller Prize. Owing to the small scale of the novel's independent publisher, the book was initially not widely available in printed form, but the e-book edition became the top-selling title for Kobo devices in 2010.[49]

Until late 2013, use of an e-reader was not allowed on airplanes during takeoff and landing.[50] In November 2013, the FAA allowed use of e-readers on airplanes at all times if it is in Airplane Mode, which means all radios turned off, and Europe followed this guidance the next month.[51] In 2014, the New York Times predicted that by 2018 e-books will make up over 50% of total consumer publishing revenue in the United States and Great Britain.[52]

E-reader applications

Some of the major book retailers and multiple third-party developers offer free (and in some third-party cases, premium paid) e-reader applications for the Mac and PC computers as well as for Android, Blackberry, iPad, iPhone, Windows Phone and Palm OS devices to allow the reading of e-books and other documents independently of dedicated e-book devices. Examples are apps for the Amazon Kindle, Barnes & Noble Nook, Kobo eReader, and Sony Reader.

Timeline

Until 1979

~1949
~1963
~1965
1971
1978

1980–99

1990
1991
1992
The DD-8 Data Discman
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
Bookeen's Cybook Gen1
1999

2000s

2000
2001
2002
2004
2005
2006
2007
The larger Kindle DX with a Kindle 2 for size comparison
2008
2009

2010s

2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016

Formats

Writers and publishers have many formats to choose from when publishing ebooks. Each format has advantages and disadvantages. The most popular e-readers[116] and their natively supported formats are shown below:

Reader Native e-book formats
Amazon Kindle and Fire tablets[117] AZW, AZW3, KF8, non-DRM MOBI, PDF, PRC, TXT
Barnes & Noble Nook and Nook Tablet[118] EPUB, PDF
Apple iPad[119] EPUB, IBA (Multitouch books made via iBooks Author), PDF
Sony Reader[117] EPUB, PDF, TXT, RTF, DOC, BBeB
Kobo eReader and Kobo Arc[120][121] EPUB, PDF, TXT, RTF, HTML, CBR (comic), CBZ (comic)
PocketBook Reader and PocketBook Touch[122][123] EPUB DRM, EPUB, PDF DRM, PDF, FB2, FB2.ZIP, TXT, DJVU, HTM, HTML, DOC, DOCX, RTF, CHM, TCR, PRC (MOBI)

Digital rights management

Most e-book publishers do not warn their customers about the possible implications of the digital rights management tied to their products. Generally they claim that digital rights management is meant to prevent copying of the e-book. However, in many cases it is also possible that digital rights management will result in the complete denial of access by the purchaser to the e-book.[124]

The e-books sold by most major publishers and electronic retailers, which are Amazon.com, Google, Barnes & Noble, Kobo Inc. and Apple Inc., are DRM-protected and tied to the publisher's e-reader software or hardware. The first major publisher to omit DRM was Tor Books, one of the largest publishers of science fiction and fantasy, in 2012. Smaller e-book publishers such as O'Reilly Media, Carina Press and Baen Books had already forgone DRM previously.[125]

Production

See also: Book scanning

Some e-books are produced simultaneously with the production of a printed format, as described in electronic publishing, though in many instances they may not be put on sale until later. Often, e-books are produced from pre-existing hard-copy books, generally by document scanning, sometimes with the use of robotic book scanners, having the technology to quickly scan books without damaging the original print edition. Scanning a book produces a set of image files, which may additionally be converted into text format by an OCR program.[126] Occasionally, as in some e-text projects, a book may be produced by re-entering the text from a keyboard.

As a newer development, sometimes only the electronic version of a book is produced by the publisher. It is even possible to release an e-book chapter by chapter as each chapter is written. This is useful in fields such as information technology where topics can change quickly in the months that it takes to write a typical book. It is also possible to convert an electronic book to a printed book by print on demand. However these are exceptions as tradition dictates that a book be launched in the print format and later if the author wishes an electronic version is produced.

The New York Times keeps a list of best-selling e-books, for both fiction[127] and non-fiction.[128]

E-book reading data

All of the e-readers and reading apps are capable of tracking e-book reading data, and the data could contain which e-books users open, how long the users spend reading each e-book and how much of each e-book is finished.[129]

Kobo Inc. released e-book reading data collected from over 21 million readers worldwide in 2014. Some of the data said that only 44.4% of UK readers finished the bestselling e-book The Goldfinch and the 2014 number one bestselling e-book in the UK, "One Cold Night" was completed by 69% of readers; this is evidence that while popular e-books are being completely read, many e-books are only sampled.[130]

Comparison to printed books

Advantages

iLiad e-book reader equipped with an e-paper display visible in sunlight

In the space that a comparably sized print book takes up, an e-reader can contain thousands of e-books, limited only by its memory capacity.

Depending on the device, an e-book may be readable in low light or even total darkness. Many e-readers have a built-in light source, can enlarge or change fonts, use Text-to-speech software to read the text aloud for visually impaired, partially sighted, elderly or dyslexic people or just for convenience.[131] Additionally, e-books allow for readers to look up words or find more information about the topic immediately. Material can be organized however the author prefers and is not limited to a linear path through the book as hyper-text can allow a number of paths through the material.[132]

Printed books use three times more raw materials and 78 times more water to produce when compared to e-books.[133]

While an e-reader costs more than most individual books, ebooks usually have a lower cost than paper books.[134] Moreover, numerous e-books are available online free of charge.[135] For example, all books printed before 1923 are in the public domain.[136]

E-books may be printed for less than the price of traditional books using on-demand book printers.[137]

Depending on possible digital rights management, e-books (unlike physical books) can be backed up and recovered in the case of loss or damage to the device on which they are stored, and it may be possible to recover a new copy without incurring an additional cost from the distributor, as well as to synchronize the text, highlights and bookmarks across several devices.[138]

E-readers normally include dictionaries. This allows the user to look up the meaning of words while reading. Amazon has reported that 85% of readers look up a word while reading.[139]

Downsides

There may be a lack of privacy for the user's e-book reading activities; for example, Amazon.com knows the user's identity, what the user is reading, whether the user has finished the book, what page the user is on, how long the user has spent on each page, and which passages the user may have highlighted.[140]

The spine of the printed book is an important aspect in book design and of its beauty as an object

The main obstacle to the e-book is that a large portion of people value the printed book as an object itself, including aspects such as the texture, smell, weight and appearance on the shelf.[141] Print books are also considered valuable cultural items, and symbols of liberal education and the Humanities.[142]

As Joe Queenan has written:

Electronic books are ideal for people who value the information contained in them, or who have vision problems, or who like to read on the subway, or who do not want other people to see how they are amusing themselves, or who have storage and clutter issues, but they are useless for people who are engaged in an intense, lifelong love affair with books. Books that we can touch; books that we can smell; books that we can depend on.[143]

Kobo found that 60% of e-books that are purchased from their e-book store are never opened and found that the more expensive the book is, the more likely the reader would at least open the e-book.[144]

Market share of digital books

United States

US Adult Fiction & Non fiction book sales in 2014[145]
Sellers Percent
Adult non-fiction print
  
 42.0%
Adult fiction print
  
 23.0%
Adult fiction ebook
  
 21.0%
Adult fiction ebook (no ISBN)
  
 6.0%
Adult non-fiction ebook
  
 6.0%
Adult non-fiction ebook (no ISBN)
  
 2.0%

In 2015, the Author Earnings Report estimates that Amazon holds a 74% market share of the e-books sold in the US.[146]

Canada

Market share of e-readers in Canada by Ipsos Reid as of January 2012
[147]
Sellers Percent
Kobo
  
 46.0%
Amazon
  
 24.0%
Sony
  
 18.0%
Others
  
 12.0%

Spain

In 2013, Carrenho estimates that e-books would have a 15% market share in Spain in 2015.[148]

UK

According to Nielsen Book Research, e-book share went from 20% to 33% between 2012 and 2014, but down to 29% in the first quarter of 2015. Amazon-published and self-published titles accounted for 17 million of those books - worth £58m – in 2014, representing 5% of the overall book market and 15% of the digital market. The volume and value sales are similar to 2013 but up 70% since 2012.[149]

Germany

The Wischenbart Report 2015 estimates the e-book market share to be 4.3%.[150]

Brazil

The Brazilian e-book market is only emerging. Brazilians are technology savvy, and that attitude is shared by the government.[150] In 2013, around 2.5% of all trade books sold were in digital format. This was a 400% growth over 2012, when only 0.5% of trade titles were digital. In 2014, the growth was slower, and Brazil finished the year with 3.5% of its trade titles being sold as e-books.[150]

China

The Wischenbart Report 2015 estimates the e-book market share to be around 1%.[150]

See also

References

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