Cartilage

Cartilage is a flexible connective tissues, including the joints between bones, the rib cage, the ear, the nose, the bronchial tubes and the intervertebral discs. It is not as hard and rigid as bone, but it is stiffer and less flexible than muscle.

Because of its rigidity, cartilage often serves the purpose of holding tubes open in the body. Examples include the rings of the trachea, such as the cricoid cartilage and carina, the torus tubarius at the opening of the pharyngotympanic/auditory tube, the ala of the nostrils, and the auricle/pinna of the ear.

Cartilage is composed of specialized cells called chondrocytes that produce a large amount of collagenous extracellular matrix, abundant ground substance that is rich in proteoglycan and elastin fibers. Cartilage is classified in three types, elastic cartilage, hyaline cartilage and fibrocartilage, which differ in relative amounts of cartilage.[1] Chondroblasts that get caught in the matrix are called chondrocytes.

Cartilage does not contain blood vessels (avascular) or nerves (aneural). The chondrocytes are supplied by diffusion. The compression of the articular cartilage or flexion of the elastic cartilage generates the pumping action, which assists the diffusion to the chondrocytes. Compared to other connective tissues, cartilage has a very slow turnover and is not easy to repair.

Structure

Development

Main article: Chondrogenesis

In embryogenesis, the skeletal system is derived from the mesoderm germ layer. Chondrification (also known as chondrogenesis) is the process by which cartilage is formed from condensed mesenchyme tissue, which differentiates into chondroblasts and begins secreting the molecules (aggrecan and collagen type II) that form the extracellular matrix.

Following the initial chondrification that occurs during embryogenesis, cartilage growth consists mostly of the maturing of immature cartilage to a more mature state. The division of cells within cartilage occurs very slowly, and thus growth in cartilage is usually not based on an increase in size or mass of the cartilage itself.[2]

Articular cartilage

The articular cartilage function is dependent on the molecular composition of the extracellular matrix (ECM). The ECM consists mainly of proteoglycan and collagens. The main proteoglycan in cartilage is aggrecan, which, as its name suggests, forms large aggregates with hyaluronan. These aggregates are negatively charged and hold water in the tissue. The collagen, mostly collagen type II, constrains the proteoglycans. The ECM responds to tensile and compressive forces that are experienced by the cartilage.[3] Cartilage growth thus refers to the matrix deposition, but can also refer to both the growth and remodeling of the extracellular matrix.

Function

Mechanical properties

The mechanical properties of articular cartilage in load bearing joints such as knee and hip have been studied extensively at macro, micro and nano-scales. These mechanical properties include the response of cartilage in frictional, compressive, shear and tensile loading. Cartilage is resilient and displays viscoelastic properties.[4]

Frictional properties

Lubricin, a glycoprotein abundant in cartilage and synovial fluid, plays a major role in bio-lubrication and wear protection of cartilage.[5]

Repair

Cartilage has limited repair capabilities: Because chondrocytes are bound in lacunae, they cannot migrate to damaged areas. Therefore, cartilage damage is difficult to heal. Also, because hyaline cartilage does not have a blood supply, the deposition of new matrix is slow. Damaged hyaline cartilage is usually replaced by fibrocartilage scar tissue. Over the last years, surgeons and scientists have elaborated a series of cartilage repair procedures that help to postpone the need for joint replacement.

Bioengineering techniques are being developed to generate new cartilage, using a cellular "scaffolding" material and cultured cells to grow artificial cartilage.[6]

Clinical significance

Disease

Main article: Chondropathy

Several diseases can affect cartilage. Chondrodystrophies are a group of diseases, characterized by the disturbance of growth and subsequent ossification of cartilage. Some common diseases that affect the cartilage are listed below.

Tumors made up of cartilage tissue, either benign or malignant, can occur. They usually appear in bone, rarely in pre-existing cartilage. The benign tumors are called chondroma, the malignant ones chondrosarcoma. Tumors arising from other tissues may also produce a cartilage-like matrix, the best known being pleomorphic adenoma of the salivary glands.

The matrix of cartilage acts as a barrier, preventing the entry of lymphocytes or diffusion of immunoglobulins. This property allows for the transplantation of cartilage from one individual to another without fear of tissue rejection.

Imaging

Cartilage does not absorb x-rays under normal In vivo conditions, but a dye can be injected into the synovial membrane that will cause the x-rays to be absorbed by the dye. The resulting void on the radiographic film between the bone and meniscus represents the cartilage. For In vitro x-ray scans, the outer soft tissue is most likely removed, so the cartilage and air boundary are enough to contrast the presence of cartilage due to the refraction of the x-ray.[8]

Histological image of hyaline cartilage stained with haematoxylin & eosin, under polarized light

Other animals

Cartilaginous fish

Cartilaginous fish (chondrichthyes) like sharks, rays and skates have a skeleton composed entirely of cartilage.

Invertebrate cartilage

Cartilage tissue can also be found among invertebrates such as horseshoe crabs, marine snails, and cephalopods.

Plants

See also

References

  1. ↑ Pratt, Rebecca. "Supporting Tissue: Cartilage". AnatomyOne. Amirsys, Inc. Retrieved 26 October 2012.
  2. ↑ Asanbaeva A, Masuda K, Thonar EJ, Klisch SM, Sah RL (2008). "Cartilage growth and remodeling: Modulation of balance between proteoglycan and collagen network in vitro with β-aminopropionitrile1". Osteoarthritis and Cartilage 16 (1): 1–11. doi:10.1016/j.joca.2007.05.019. PMID 17631390.
  3. ↑ Asanbaeva A, Tam J, Schumacher BL, Klisch SM, Masuda K, Sah RL (2008). "Articular cartilage tensile integrity: Modulation by matrix depletion is maturation-dependent". Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics 474 (1): 175–182. doi:10.1016/j.abb.2008.03.012. PMC 2440786. PMID 18394422.
  4. ↑ Hayes WC, Mockros LF (1971). "Viscoelastic properties of human articular cartilage" (PDF). J Appl Physiol 31 (4): 562–8. PMID 5111002.
  5. ↑ Rhee DK, Marcelino J, Baker M, Gong Y, Smits P, Lefebvre V, Jay GD, Stewart M, Wang H, Warman ML, Carpten JD (2005). "The secreted glycoprotein lubricin protects cartilage surfaces and inhibits synovial cell overgrowth". J Clin Investig 115 (3): 622–31. doi:10.1172/JCI22263. PMC 548698. PMID 15719068.
  6. ↑ International Cartilage Repair Society ICRS
  7. ↑ "Supplements for osteoarthritis 'do not work'". BBC News. 16 September 2010.
  8. ↑ Osteoarthritis. Osteoarthritis.about.com. Retrieved on 2015-10-26.
  9. ↑ Eflora – Glossary. University of Sydney (2010-06-16). Retrieved on 2015-10-26.
General references

External links

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