Electrosynthesis

Electrosynthesis in chemistry is the synthesis of chemical compounds in an electrochemical cell.[1][2] The main advantage of electrosynthesis over an ordinary redox reaction is avoidance of the potential wasteful other half-reaction and the ability to precisely tune the required potential. Electrosynthesis is actively studied as a science and also has many industrial applications.

Experimental setup

The basic setup in electrosynthesis is a galvanic cell, a potentiostat and two electrodes. Good electrosynthetic conditions use a solvent and electrolyte combination that minimizes electrical resistance.[3] Protic conditions often use alcohol-water or dioxane-water solvent mixtures with an electrolyte such as a soluble salt, acid or base. Aprotic conditions often use an organic solvent such as acetonitrile or dichloromethane with electrolytes such as lithium perchlorate or tetrabutylammonium acetate. Electrodes are selected which provide favorable electron transfer properties towards the substrate while maximizing the activation energy for side reactions. This activation energy is often related to an overpotential of a competing reaction. For example, in aqueous conditions the competing reactions in the cell are the formation of oxygen at the anode and hydrogen at the cathode. In this case a graphite anode and lead cathode could be used effectively because of their high overpotentials for oxygen and hydrogen formation respectively. Many other materials can be used as electrodes. Other examples include platinum, magnesium, mercury (as a liquid pool in the reactor), stainless steel or reticulated vitreous carbon. Some reactions use a sacrificial electrode is used which is consumed during the reaction like zinc or lead. The two basic cell types are undivided cell or divided cell type. In divided cells the cathode and anode chambers are separated with a semiporous membrane. Common membrane materials include sintered glass, porous porcelain, polytetrafluoroethene or polypropylene. The purpose of the divided cell is to permit the diffusion of ions while restricting the flow of the products and reactants. This is important when unwanted side reactions are possible. An example of a reaction requiring a divided cell is the reduction of nitrobenzene to phenylhydroxylamine, where the latter chemical is susceptible to oxidation at the anode.

Reactions

Organic oxidations take place at the anode with initial formation of radical cations as reactive intermediates. Compounds are reduced at the cathode to radical anions. The initial reaction takes place at the surface of the electrode and then the intermediates diffuse into the solution where they participate in secondary reactions.

The yield of an electrosynthesis is expressed both in terms the chemical yield and current efficiency. Current efficiency is the ratio of Coulombs consumed in forming the products to the total number of Coulombs passed through the cell. Side reactions decrease the current efficiency.

The potential drop between the electrodes determines the rate constant of the reaction. Electrosynthesis is carried out with either constant potential or constant current. The reason one chooses one over the other is due to a trade off of ease of experimental conditions versus current efficiency. Constant potential uses current more efficiently because the current in the cell decreases with time due to the depletion of the substrate around the working electrode (stirring is usually necessary to decrease the diffusion layer around the electrode). This is not the case under constant current conditions however. Instead as the substrate's concentration decreases the potential across the cell increases in order to maintain the fixed reaction rate. This consumes current in side reactions produced outside the target voltage.

Anodic oxidations

This reaction type is called a Shono oxidation. An example is the α-methoxylation of N-carbomethoxypyrrolidine[4]

Cathodic reductions

and the reduction of 2-methoxynaphthalene:

Electrofluorination

Main article: Electrofluorination

In organofluorine chemistry, many perfluorinated compounds are prepared by electrochemical synthesis, which is conducted in liquid HF at voltages near 5–6 V using Ni anodes. The method was invented in the 1930s.[16] Amines, alcohols, carboxylic acids, and sulfonic acids are converted to the perfluorinated derivatives using this technology. A solution or suspension of the hydrocarbon in hydrogen fluoride is electrolyzed at 5–6 V to produce high yields of the perfluorinated product.

External links

References

  1. The application of cathodic reductions and anodic oxidations in the synthesis of complex molecules Jeffrey B. Sperry and Dennis L. Wright Chem. Soc. Rev., 2006, 35, 605 – 621, doi:10.1039/b512308a
  2. Topics in current chemistry. Electrochemistry, Vol. 3 (Topics in Current Chemistry, Vol. 148) E. Steckhan (Ed), Springer, NY 1988.
  3. 1 2 Grimshaw, James (2000). Electrochemical Reactions and Mechanisms in Organic Chemistry. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science. pp. 1–7, 282, & 310. ISBN 9780444720078.
  4. Organic Syntheses, Coll. Vol. 7, p.307 (1990); Vol. 63, p.206 (1985). Link
  5. Organic Syntheses, Coll. Vol. 7, p.482 (1990); Vol. 60, p.78 (1981) Link
  6. Hampson, N; Lee, J; MacDonald, K (1972). "The oxidation of amino compounds at anodic silver". Electrochimica Acta 17 (5): 921–955. doi:10.1016/0013-4686(72)90014-X.
  7. Barba, Fructuoso; Batanero, Belen (2004). "Paired Electrosynthesis of Cyanoacetic Acid". The Journal of Organic Chemistry 69 (7): 2423–2426. doi:10.1021/jo0358473.
  8. "Electrochemistry Encyclopedia – Tafel: his life and science". Archived from the original on 2012-02-06.
  9. Tafel, Julius; Hahl, Hans (1907). "Vollständige Reduktion des Benzylacetessigesters". Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft 40 (3): 3312–3318. doi:10.1002/cber.190704003102.
  10. Krishnan, V.; Muthukumaran, A.; Udupa, H. V. K. (1979). "The electroreduction of benzyl cyanide on iron and cobalt cathodes". Journal of Applied Electrochemistry 9 (5): 657–659. doi:10.1007/BF00610957.
  11. Wessling, M.; Schäfer, H.J. (1991). "Cathodic reduction of 1-nitroalkenes to oximes and primary amines". Chem. Ber. 124: 2303–2306. doi:10.1002/cber.19911241024.
  12. Sakakura, Toshiyasu; Choi, Jun-Chul; Yasuda, Hiroyuki (13 June 2007). "Transformation of Carbon dioxide". Chemical Reviews (American Chemical Society) 107 (6): 2365–2387. doi:10.1021/cr068357u. PMID 17564481.
  13. Tafel, Julius; Friedrichs, Gustav (1904). "Elektrolytische Reduction von Carbonsäuren und Carbonsäureestern in schwefelsaurer Lösung". Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft 37 (3): 3187–3191. doi:10.1002/cber.190403703116.
  14. Cohen, Julius (1910). Practical Organic Chemistry (PDF) (2nd ed.). London: Macmillan and Co. Limited. pp. 102–104.
  15. Bouwman, Elisabeth; Angamuthu, Raja; Byers, Philip; Lutz, Martin; Spek, Anthony L. (July 15, 2010). "Electrocatalytic CO2 Conversion to Oxalate by a Copper Complex". Science 327 (5393): 313–315. doi:10.1126/science.1177981.
  16. J. H. Simons "Production of Fluorocarbons I. The Generalized Procedure and its Use with Nitrogen Compounds" Journal of The Electrochemical Society, 1949, Volume 95, pp. 47–52. doi: 10.1149/1.2776733 . See also related articles by Simons et al. on pages 53, 55, 59, and 64 of the same issue.
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