Extrusion

Extruded aluminium with several hollow cavities; T slots allow bars to be joined with special connectors.
For the process that creates volcanic rock, see Extrusive (geology).

Extrusion is a process used to create objects of a fixed cross-sectional profile. A material is pushed through a die (a certain manufacturing tool) of the desired cross-section. The two main advantages of this process over other manufacturing processes are its ability to create very complex cross-sections, and to work materials that are brittle, because the material only encounters compressive and shear stresses. It also forms parts with an excellent surface finish.[1]

Drawing is a similar process, which uses the tensile strength of the material to pull it through the die. This limits the amount of change which can be performed in one step, so it is limited to simpler shapes, and multiple stages are usually needed. Drawing is the main way to produce wire. Metal bar and tube are also often drawn.

Extrusion may be continuous (theoretically producing indefinitely long material) or semi-continuous (producing many pieces). The extrusion process can be done with the material hot or cold. Commonly extruded materials include metals, polymers, ceramics, concrete, play dough, and foodstuffs. The products of extrusion are generally called "extrudates".

Hollow cavities within extruded material cannot be produced using a simple flat extrusion die, because there would be no way to support the center barrier of the die. Instead, the die assumes the shape of a block with depth, beginning first with a shape profile that supports the center section. The die shape then internally changes along its length into the final shape, with the suspended center pieces supported from the back of the die. The material flows around the supports and fuses together to create the desired closed shape.

The extrusion process in metals may also increase the strength of the material.

History

In 1797, Joseph Bramah patented the first extrusion process for making lead pipe. It involved preheating the metal and then forcing it through a die via a hand-driven plunger. The process was not further developed until 1820 when Thomas Burr constructed the first hydraulic powered press. At this time the process was called "squirting". In 1894, Alexander Dick expanded the extrusion process to copper and brass alloys.[2]

Process

The process begins by heating the stock material (for hot or warm extrusion). It is then loaded into the container in the press. A dummy block is placed behind it where the ram then presses on the material to push it out of the die. Afterward the extrusion is stretched in order to straighten it. If better properties are required then it may be heat treated or cold worked.[2]

The extrusion ratio is defined as the starting cross-sectional area divided by the cross-sectional area of the final extrusion. One of the main advantages of the extrusion process is that this ratio can be very large while still producing quality parts.

Hot extrusion

Hot extrusion is a hot working process, which means it is done above the material's recrystallization temperature to keep the material from work hardening and to make it easier to push the material through the die. Most hot extrusions are done on horizontal hydraulic presses that range from 230 to 11,000 metric tons (250 to 12,130 short tons). Pressures range from 30 to 700 MPa (4,400 to 101,500 psi), therefore lubrication is required, which can be oil or graphite for lower temperature extrusions, or glass powder for higher temperature extrusions. The biggest disadvantage of this process is its cost for machinery and its upkeep.[1]

Hot extrusion temperature for various metals[1]
Material Temperature [°C (°F)]
Magnesium 350–450 (650–850)
Aluminium 350–500 (650–900)
Copper 600–1100 (1200–2000)
Steel 1200–1300 (2200–2400)
Titanium 700–1200 (1300–2100)
Nickel 1000–1200 (1900–2200)
Refractory alloys up to 2000 (4000)

The extrusion process is generally economical when producing between several kilograms (pounds) and many tons, depending on the material being extruded. There is a crossover point where roll forming becomes more economical. For instance, some steels become more economical to roll if producing more than 20,000 kg (50,000 lb).[2]

Cold extrusion

Cold extrusion is done at room temperature or near room temperature. The advantages of this over hot extrusion are the lack of oxidation, higher strength due to cold working, closer tolerances, better surface finish, and fast extrusion speeds if the material is subject to hot shortness.[1]

Materials that are commonly cold extruded include: lead, tin, aluminum, copper, zirconium, titanium, molybdenum, beryllium, vanadium, niobium, and steel.

Examples of products produced by this process are: collapsible tubes, fire extinguisher cases, shock absorber cylinders and gear blanks.

Warm extrusion

Warm extrusion is done above room temperature, but below the recrystallization temperature of the material the temperatures ranges from 800 to 1800 °F (424 to 975 °C). It is usually used to achieve the proper balance of required forces, ductility and final extrusion properties.[3]

Microextrusion

Main article: Microextrusion

Microextrusion is a microforming extrusion process performed at the submillimeter range. Like extrusion, metal is pushed through a die orifice, but the resulting product's cross section can fit through a 1mm square. Several microextrusion processes have been developed since microforming was envisioned in 1990.[4][5][6] Forward (ram and billet move in the same direction) and backward (ram and billet move in the opposite direction) microextrusion were first introduced, with forward rod-backward cup and double cup extrusion methods developing later.[5][7] Regardless of method, one of the greatest challenges of creating a successful microextrusion machine is the manufacture of the die and ram. "The small size of the die and ram, along with the stringent accuracy requirement, needs suitable manufacturing processes."[5] Additionally, as Fu and Chan pointed out in a 2013 state-of-the-art technology review, several issues must still be resolved before microextrusion and other microforming technologies can be implemented more widely, including deformation load and defects, forming system stability, mechanical properties, and other size-related effects on the crystallite (grain) structure and boundaries.[6][5]

Extrusion defects

Equipment

A horizontal hydraulic press for hot aluminum extrusion (loose dies and scrap visible in foreground)

There are many different variations of extrusion equipment. They vary by four major characteristics:[1]

  1. Movement of the extrusion with relation to the ram. If the die is held stationary and the ram moves towards it then it is called "direct extrusion". If the ram is held stationary and the die moves towards the ram it is called "indirect extrusion".
  2. The position of the press, either vertical or horizontal.
  3. The type of drive, either hydraulic or mechanical.
  4. The type of load applied, either conventional (variable) or hydrostatic.

A single or twin screw auger, powered by an electric motor, or a ram, driven by hydraulic pressure (often used for steel and titanium alloys), oil pressure (for aluminium), or in other specialized processes such as rollers inside a perforated drum for the production of many simultaneous streams of material.

Typical extrusion presses cost more than $100,000, whereas dies can cost up to $2000.

Forming internal cavities

Two-piece aluminum extrusion die set (parts shown separated.) The male part (at right) is for forming the internal cavity in the resulting round tube extrusion.

There are several methods for forming internal cavities in extrusions. One way is to use a hollow billet and then use a fixed or floating mandrel. A fixed mandrel, also known as a German type, means it is integrated into the dummy block and stem. A floating mandrel, also known as a French type, floats in slots in the dummy block and aligns itself in the die when extruding. If a solid billet is used as the feed material then it must first be pierced by the mandrel before extruding through the die. A special press is used in order to control the mandrel independently from the ram.[1] The solid billet could also be used with a spider die, porthole die or bridge die. All of these types of dies incorporate the mandrel in the die and have "legs" that hold the mandrel in place. During extrusion the metal divides, flows around the legs, then merges, leaving weld lines in the final product.[8]

Direct extrusion

Plot of forces required by various extrusion processes.

Direct extrusion, also known as forward extrusion, is the most common extrusion process. It works by placing the billet in a heavy walled container. The billet is pushed through the die by a ram or screw. There is a reusable dummy block between the ram and the billet to keep them separated. The major disadvantage of this process is that the force required to extrude the billet is greater than that needed in the indirect extrusion process because of the frictional forces introduced by the need for the billet to travel the entire length of the container. Because of this the greatest force required is at the beginning of process and slowly decreases as the billet is used up. At the end of the billet the force greatly increases because the billet is thin and the material must flow radially to exit the die. The end of the billet (called the butt end) is not used for this reason.[9]

Indirect extrusion

In indirect extrusion, also known as backwards extrusion, the billet and container move together while the die is stationary. The die is held in place by a "stem" which has to be longer than the container length. The maximum length of the extrusion is ultimately dictated by the column strength of the stem. Because the billet moves with the container the frictional forces are eliminated. This leads to the following advantages:[10]

The disadvantages are:[10]

Hydrostatic extrusion

In the hydrostatic extrusion process the billet is completely surrounded by a pressurized liquid, except where the billet contacts the die. This process can be done hot, warm, or cold, however the temperature is limited by the stability of the fluid used. The process must be carried out in a sealed cylinder to contain the hydrostatic medium. The fluid can be pressurized two ways:[10]

  1. Constant-rate extrusion: A ram or plunger is used to pressurize the fluid inside the container.
  2. Constant-pressure extrusion: A pump is used, possibly with a pressure intensifier, to pressurize the fluid, which is then pumped to the container.

The advantages of this process include:[10]

The disadvantages are:[10]

Drives

Most modern direct or indirect extrusion presses are hydraulically driven, but there are some small mechanical presses still used. Of the hydraulic presses there are two types: direct-drive oil presses and accumulator water drives.

Direct-drive oil presses are the most common because they are reliable and robust. They can deliver over 35 MPa (5000 psi). They supply a constant pressure throughout the whole billet. The disadvantage is that they are slow, between 50 and 200 mm/s (2–8 ips).[11]

Accumulator water drives are more expensive and larger than direct-drive oil presses, and they lose about 10% of their pressure over the stroke, but they are much faster, up to 380 mm/s (15 ips). Because of this they are used when extruding steel. They are also used on materials that must be heated to very hot temperatures for safety reasons.[11]

Hydrostatic extrusion presses usually use castor oil at pressure up to 1400 MPa (200 ksi). Castor oil is used because it has good lubricity and high pressure properties.[12]

Die design

The design of an extrusion profile has a large impact on how readily it can be extruded. The maximum size for an extrusion is determined by finding the smallest circle that will fit around the cross-section, this is called the circumscribing circle. This diameter, in turn, controls the size of the die required, which ultimately determines if the part will fit in a given press. For example, a larger press can handle 60 cm (24 in) diameter circumscribing circles for aluminium and 55 cm (22 in) diameter circles for steel and titanium.[1]

The complexity of an extruded profile can be roughly quantified by calculating the shape factor, which is the amount of surface area generated per unit mass of extrusion. This affects the cost of tooling as well as the rate of production.[13]

Thicker sections generally need an increased section size. In order for the material to flow properly legs should not be more than ten times longer than their thickness. If the cross-section is asymmetrical, adjacent sections should be as close to the same size as possible. Sharp corners should be avoided; for aluminium and magnesium the minimum radius should be 0.4 mm (1/64 in) and for steel corners should be 0.75 mm (0.030 in) and fillets should be 3 mm (0.12 in). The following table lists the minimum cross-section and thickness for various materials.[1]

Material Minimum cross-section [cm² (sq. in.)] Minimum thickness [mm (in.)]
Carbon steels 2.5 (0.40) 3.00 (0.120)
Stainless steel 3.0–4.5 (0.45–0.70) 3.00–4.75 (0.120–0.187)
Titanium 3.0 (0.50) 3.80 (0.150)
Aluminium < 2.5 (0.40) 0.70 (0.028)
Magnesium < 2.5 (0.40) 1.00 (0.040)

Materials

Metal

Metals that are commonly extruded include:[14]

Magnesium and aluminium alloys usually have a 0.75 µm (30 µin) RMS or better surface finish. Titanium and steel can achieve a 3 micrometres (120 µin) RMS.[1]

In 1950, Ugine Séjournet, of France, invented a process which uses glass as a lubricant for extruding steel.[15] The Ugine-Sejournet, or Sejournet, process is now used for other materials that have melting temperatures higher than steel or that require a narrow range of temperatures to extrude, such as the platinum-iridium alloy used to make kilogram mass standards.[16] The process starts by heating the materials to the extruding temperature and then rolling it in glass powder. The glass melts and forms a thin film, 20 to 30 mils (0.5 to 0.75 mm), in order to separate it from chamber walls and allow it to act as a lubricant. A thick solid glass ring that is 0.25 to 0.75 in (6 to 18 mm) thick is placed in the chamber on the die to lubricate the extrusion as it is forced through the die. A second advantage of this glass ring is its ability to insulate the heat of the billet from the die. The extrusion will have a 1 mil thick layer of glass, which can be easily removed once it cools.[3]

Another breakthrough in lubrication is the use of phosphate coatings. With this process, in conjunction with glass lubrication, steel can be cold extruded. The phosphate coat absorbs the liquid glass to offer even better lubricating properties.[3]

Plastic

Sectional view of a plastic extruder showing the components
Sectional view of how a caterpillar haul-off provides line tension
Main article: Plastics extrusion

Plastics extrusion commonly uses plastic chips or pellets, which are usually dried, to drive out moisture, in a hopper before going to the feed screw. The polymer resin is heated to molten state by a combination of heating elements and shear heating from the extrusion screw. The screw, or screws as the case with twin screw extrusion, forces the resin through a die, forming the resin into the desired shape. The extrudate is cooled and solidified as it is pulled through the die or water tank. A "caterpillar haul-off" (called a "puller" in the US) is used to provide tension on the extrusion line which is essential for overall quality of the extrudate. Pelletizers can also create this tension while pulling extruded strands in to be cut. The caterpillar haul-off must provide a consistent pull; otherwise, variation in cut lengths or distorted product will result. In some cases (such as fibre-reinforced tubes) the extrudate is pulled through a very long die, in a process called "pultrusion". The configuration of the interior screws are a driving force dependent on the application. Mixing elements or convey elements are used in various formations. Extrusion is common in the application of adding colorant to molten plastic thus creating specific custom color.

A multitude of polymers are used in the production of plastic tubing, pipes, rods, rails, seals, and sheets or films.

Ceramic

Ceramic can also be formed into shapes via extrusion. Terracotta extrusion is used to produce pipes. Many modern bricks are also manufactured using a brick extrusion process.[17] {403 forbidden link 12Jul15}

Applications

Food

Main article: Food extrusion
Elbow macaroni is an extruded hollow pasta.

With the advent of industrial manufacturing, extrusion found application in food processing of instant foods and snacks, along with its already known uses in plastics and metal fabrication. Products such as certain pastas, many breakfast cereals, premade cookie dough, some french fries, certain baby foods, dry or semi-moist pet food and ready-to-eat snacks are mostly manufactured by extrusion. It is also used to produce modified starch, and to pelletize animal feed.

Generally, high-temperature extrusion is used for the manufacture of ready-to-eat snacks, while cold extrusion is used for the manufacture of pasta and related products intended for later cooking and consumption. The processed products have low moisture and hence considerably higher shelf life, and provide variety and convenience to consumers.

In the extrusion process, raw materials are first ground to the correct particle size. The dry mix is passed through a pre-conditioner, in which other ingredients may be added, and steam is injected to start the cooking process. The preconditioned mix is then passed through an extruder, where it is forced through a die and cut to the desired length. The cooking process takes place within the extruder where the product produces its own friction and heat due to the pressure generated (10–20 bar). The main independent parameters during extrusion cooking are feed rate, particle size of the raw material, barrel temperature, screw speed and moisture content. The extruding process can induce both protein denaturation and starch gelatinization, depending on inputs and parameters. Sometimes, a catalyst is used, for example, when producing texturised vegetable proteins (TVP).

Drug carriers

For use in pharmaceutical products, extrusion through nano-porous, polymeric filters is being used to produce suspensions of lipid vesicles liposomes or transfersomes with a particular size of a narrow size distribution. The anti-cancer drug Doxorubicin in liposome delivery system is formulated by extrusion, for example.

Biomass briquettes

Main article: Biomass briquettes

The extrusion production technology of fuel briquettes is the process of extrusion screw wastes (straw, sunflower husks, buckwheat, etc.) or finely shredded wood waste (sawdust) under high pressure when heated from 160 to 350 °C. The resulting fuel briquettes do not include any of the binders, but one natural – the lignin contained in the cells of plant wastes. The temperature during compression causes melting of the surface of bricks, making it more solid, which is important for the transportation of briquettes.

See also

References

Notes

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Oberg et al. 2000, pp. 1348–1349
  2. 1 2 3 Drozda, pp. 13-11 & 13-12.
  3. 1 2 3 Avitzur, B. (1987), "Metal forming", Encyclopedia of Physical Science & Technology 8, San Diego: Academic Press, Inc., pp. 80–109
  4. ↑ Engel, U.; Eckstein, R. (2002). "Microforming - From Basic research to its realization". Journal of Materials Processing Technology. 125–126 (2002): 35–44. doi:10.1016/S0924-0136(02)00415-6.
  5. 1 2 3 4 Dixit, U.S.; Das, R. (2012). "Chapter 15: Microextrusion". In Jain, V.K. Micromanufacturing Processes. CRC Press. pp. 263–282. ISBN 9781439852903.
  6. 1 2 Fu, M.W.; Chan, W.L. (2013). "A review on the state-of-the-art microforming technologies". International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology 67 (9): 2411–2437. doi:10.1007/s00170-012-4661-7.
  7. ↑ Fu, M.W.; Chan, W.L. (2014). "Chapter 4: Microforming Processes". Micro-scaled Products Development via Microforming: Deformation Behaviours, Processes, Tooling and its Realization. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 73–130. ISBN 9781447163268. Retrieved 19 March 2016.
  8. ↑ Drozda, pp. 13–21.
  9. ↑ Drozda, p. 13.
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 Drozda, pp. 13–14.
  11. 1 2 Drozda, pp. 13–16.
  12. ↑ Drozda, pp. 13–20.
  13. ↑ Aluminum Extrusion Tooling – MakeItFrom
  14. ↑ Drozda, pp. 13–15 & 16.
  15. ↑ Bauser, Martin; Sauer, Günther; Siegert, Klaus (2006), Extrusion, ASM International, p. 270, ISBN 0-87170-837-X
  16. ↑ Quinn, T. J. (1986). "New Techniques in the Manufacture of Platinum-Iridium Mass Standards". Platinum Metals Review 30 (2): 74–79. The forged billet is then delivered to the National Physical Laboratory where it is extruded at 1200 °C, using glass as the lubricant, to a cylinder about 43 mm in diameter.
  17. ↑ Brick manufacturing process

Bibliography

See also

External links

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