Monomyth
In narratology and comparative mythology, the monomyth, or the hero's journey, is the common template of a broad category of tales that involve a hero who goes on an adventure, and in a decisive crisis wins a victory, and then comes home changed or transformed.[1]
The concept was introduced by Joseph Campbell in The Hero with a Thousand Faces (1949), who described the basic narrative pattern as follows:
A hero ventures forth from the world of common day into a region of supernatural wonder: fabulous forces are there encountered and a decisive victory is won: the hero comes back from this mysterious adventure with the power to bestow boons on his fellow man.[2]
Campbell and other scholars, such as Erich Neumann, describe narratives of Gautama Buddha, Moses, and Christ in terms of the monomyth. Critics argue that the concept is too broad or general to be of much usefulness in comparative mythology. Others say that the hero's journey is only a part of the Monomyth. The other part is a sort of different form, or color, of the hero's journey.
Terminology
Campbell borrowed the word monomyth from Joyce's Finnegans Wake (1939). Campbell was a notable scholar of James Joyce's work and with A Skeleton Key to Finnegans Wake (1944) co-authored the seminal analysis of Joyce's final novel.[3] Campbell's singular the monomyth implies that the "hero's journey" is the ultimate narrative archetype, but the term monomyth has occasionally been used more generally, as a term for a mythological archetype or a supposed mytheme that re-occurs throughout the world's cultures.[4] Omry Ronen referred to Vyacheslav Ivanov's treatment of Dionysus as an "avatar of Christ" (1904) as "Ivanov's monomyth".[5]
The phrase "the hero's journey", used in reference to Campbell's monomyth, first entered into popular discourse through two documentaries. The first, released in 1987, The Hero's Journey: The World of Joseph Campbell, was accompanied by a 1990 companion book, The Hero's Journey: Joseph Campbell on His Life and Work (with Phil Cousineau and Stuart Brown, eds.). The second was Bill Moyers's series of seminal interviews with Campbell, released in 1988 as the documentary (and companion book) The Power of Myth. Cousineau in the introduction to the revised edition of The Hero's Journey wrote "the monomyth is in effect a metamyth, a philosophical reading of the unity of mankind's spiritual history, the Story behind the story".[6]
Summary
Campbell describes 17 stages of the monomyth. Not all monomyths necessarily contain all 17 stages explicitly; some myths may focus on only one of the stages, while others may deal with the stages in a somewhat different order. In the terminology of Claude Lévi-Strauss, the stages are the individual mythemes which are "bundled" or assembled into the structure of the monomyth.[7]
The 17 stages may be organized in a number of ways, including division into three "acts" or sections:
I. Departure (also Separation),
II. Initiation (sometimes subdivided into IIA. Descent and IIB. Initiation) and
III. Return.
In the Departure part of the narrative, the hero or protagonist lives in the ordinary world and receives a call to go on an adventure. The hero is reluctant to follow the call, but is helped by a mentor figure.
The Initiation section begins with the hero then traversing the threshold to the unknown or "special world", where he faces tasks or trials, either alone or with the assistance of helpers.
The hero eventually reaches "the innermost cave" or the central crisis of his adventure, where he must undergo "the ordeal" where he overcomes the main obstacle or enemy, undergoing "apotheosis" and gaining his reward (a treasure or "elixir").
The hero must then return to the ordinary world with his reward. He may be pursued by the guardians of the special world, or he may be reluctant to return, and may be rescued or forced to return by intervention from the outside.
In the Return section, the hero again traverses the threshold between the worlds, returning to the ordinary world with the treasure or elixir he gained, which he may now use for the benefit of his fellow man. The hero himself is transformed by the adventure and gains wisdom or spiritual power over both worlds.
Campbell's approach has been very widely received in narratology, mythography and psychotherapy, especially since the 1980s, and a number of variant summaries of the basic structure have been published. The general structure of Campbell's exposition has been noted before and described in similar terms in comparative mythology of the 19th and early 20th century, notably by Russian folkorist Vladimir Propp who divided the structure of Russian folk tales into 31 "functions".[8]
| Act | Campbell (1949) | David Adams Leeming (1981)[9] | Phil Cousineau (1990)[10] |
Christopher Vogler (2007)[11] |
| I. Departure | 1. The Call to Adventure 2. Refusal of the Call |
1. Miraculous conception and birth 2. Initiation of the hero-child |
1. The Call to Adventure | 1. The Ordinary World 2. The Call to Adventure |
| II. Initiation | 6. The Road of Trials 7. The Meeting with the Goddess |
4. Trial and Quest 5. Death |
2. The Road of Trials 3. The Vision Quest |
6. Tests, Allies and Enemies 7. Approach to the Innermost Cave |
| III. Return | 12. Refusal of the Return 13. The Magic Flight |
7. Resurrection and rebirth 8. Ascension, apotheosis, and atonement |
6. The Magic Flight 7.The Return Threshold |
10. The Road Back 11. The Resurrection |
The pattern is closely followed in many of the world's spiritual narratives, in shamanism, initiation rites, mystery religions (descent to the underworld), and in the mythologies of the world's major religious or spiritual systems, including the stories of Gautama Buddha, Moses or Jesus.
Campbell's seventeen stages
The following is a more detailed account of Campbell's original 1949 exposition of the monomyth in 17 stages.
Departure
The Call to Adventure
The hero begins in a situation of normality from which some information is received that acts as a call to head off into the unknown.
Campbell: "... a forest, a kingdom underground, beneath the waves, or above the sky, a secret island, lofty mountaintop, or profound dream state; but it is always a place of strangely fluid and polymorphous beings, unimaginable torments, super human deeds, and impossible delight. The hero can go forth of his own volition to accomplish the adventure, as did Theseus when he arrived in his father's city, Athens, and heard the horrible history of the Minotaur; or he may be carried or sent abroad by some benign or malignant agent as was Odysseus, driven about the Mediterranean by the winds of the angered god, Poseidon. The adventure may begin as a mere blunder... or still again, one may be only casually strolling when some passing phenomenon catches the wandering eye and lures one away from the frequented paths of man. Examples might be multiplied, ad infinitum, from every corner of the world."
Refusal of the Call
Often when the call is given, the future hero first refuses to heed it. This may be from a sense of duty or obligation, fear, insecurity, a sense of inadequacy, or any of a range of reasons that work to hold the person in his or her current circumstances.
Campbell: "Refusal of the summons converts the adventure into its negative. Walled in boredom, hard work, or 'culture,' the subject loses the power of significant affirmative action and becomes a victim to be saved. His flowering world becomes a wasteland of dry stones and his life feels meaningless—even though, like King Minos, he may through titanic effort succeed in building an empire or renown. Whatever house he builds, it will be a house of death: a labyrinth of cyclopean walls to hide from him his minotaur. All he can do is create new problems for himself and await the gradual approach of his disintegration."
Supernatural Aid
Once the hero has committed to the quest, consciously or unconsciously, his guide and magical helper appears or becomes known. More often than not, this supernatural mentor will present the hero with one or more talismans or artifacts that will aid him later in his quest.
Campbell: "For those who have not refused the call, the first encounter of the hero journey is with a protective figure (often a little old crone or old man) who provides the adventurer with amulets against the dragon forces he is about to pass. What such a figure represents is the benign, protecting power of destiny. The fantasy is a reassurance—promise that the peace of Paradise, which was known first within the mother womb, is not to be lost; that it supports the present and stands in the future as well as in the past (is omega as well as alpha); that though omnipotence may seem to be endangered by the threshold passages and life awakenings, protective power is always and ever present within or just behind the unfamiliar features of the world. One has only to know and trust, and the ageless guardians will appear. Having responded to his own call, and continuing to follow courageously as the consequences unfold, the hero finds all the forces of the unconscious at his side. Mother Nature herself supports the mighty task. And in so far as the hero's act coincides with that for which his society is ready, he seems to ride on the great rhythm of the historical process."
Crossing the Threshold
This is the point where the person actually crosses into the field of adventure, leaving the known limits of his or her world and venturing into an unknown and dangerous realm where the rules and limits are not known.
Campbell: "With the personifications of his destiny to guide and aid him, the hero goes forward in his adventure until he comes to the 'threshold guardian' at the entrance to the zone of magnified power. Such custodians bound the world in four directions — also up and down — standing for the limits of the hero's present sphere, or life horizon. Beyond them is darkness, the unknown and danger; just as beyond the parental watch is danger to the infant and beyond the protection of his society danger to the members of the tribe. The usual person is more than content, he is even proud, to remain within the indicated bounds, and popular belief gives him every reason to fear so much as the first step into the unexplored. The adventure is always and everywhere a passage beyond the veil of the known into the unknown; the powers that watch at the boundary are dangerous; to deal with them is risky; yet for anyone with competence and courage the danger fades."
Belly of the Whale
The belly of the whale represents the final separation from the hero's known world and self. By entering this stage, the person shows willingness to undergo a metamorphosis.
Campbell: "The idea that the passage of the magical threshold is a transit into a sphere of rebirth is symbolized in the worldwide womb image of the belly of the whale. The hero, instead of conquering or conciliating the power of the threshold, is swallowed into the unknown and would appear to have died. This popular motif gives emphasis to the lesson that the passage of the threshold is a form of self-annihilation. Instead of passing outward, beyond the confines of the visible world, the hero goes inward, to be born again. The disappearance corresponds to the passing of a worshipper into a temple—where he is to be quickened by the recollection of who and what he is, namely dust and ashes unless immortal. The temple interior, the belly of the whale, and the heavenly land beyond, above, and below the confines of the world, are one and the same. That is why the approaches and entrances to temples are flanked and defended by colossal gargoyles: dragons, lions, devil-slayers with drawn swords, resentful dwarfs, winged bulls. The devotee at the moment of entry into a temple undergoes a metamorphosis. Once inside he may be said to have died to time and returned to the World Womb, the World Navel, the Earthly Paradise. Allegorically, then, the passage into a temple and the hero-dive through the jaws of the whale are identical adventures, both denoting in picture language, the life-centering, life-renewing act."
Initiation
The Road of Trials
The road of trials is a series of tests that the person must undergo to begin the transformation. Often the person fails one or more of these tests, which often occur in threes.
Campbell: "Once having traversed the threshold, the hero moves in a dream landscape of curiously fluid, ambiguous forms, where he must survive a succession of trials. This is a favorite phase of the myth-adventure. It has produced a world literature of miraculous tests and ordeals. The hero is covertly aided by the advice, amulets, and secret agents of the supernatural helper whom he met before his entrance into this region. Or it may be that he here discovers for the first time that there is a benign power everywhere supporting him in his superhuman passage. The original departure into the land of trials represented only the beginning of the long and really perilous path of initiatory conquests and moments of illumination. Dragons have now to be slain and surprising barriers passed — again, again, and again. Meanwhile there will be a multitude of preliminary victories, unretainable ecstasies and momentary glimpses of the wonderful land."
The Meeting with the Goddess
This is the point when the person experiences a love that has the power and significance of the all-powerful, all encompassing, unconditional love that a fortunate infant may experience with his or her mother. This is a very important step in the process and is often represented by the person finding the other person that he or she loves most completely.
Campbell: "The ultimate adventure, when all the barriers and ogres have been overcome, is commonly represented as a mystical marriage of the triumphant hero-soul with the Queen Goddess of the World. This is the crisis at the nadir, the zenith, or at the uttermost edge of the earth, at the central point of the cosmos, in the tabernacle of the temple, or within the darkness of the deepest chamber of the heart. The meeting with the goddess (who is incarnate in every woman) is the final test of the talent of the hero to win the boon of love (charity: amor fati), which is life itself enjoyed as the encasement of eternity. And when the adventurer, in this context, is not a youth but a maid, she is the one who, by her qualities, her beauty, or her yearning, is fit to become the consort of an immortal. Then the heavenly husband descends to her and conducts her to his bed—whether she will or not. And if she has shunned him, the scales fall from her eyes; if she has sought him, her desire finds its peace."
Woman as Temptress
In this step, the hero faces those temptations, often of a physical or pleasurable nature, that may lead him or her to abandon or stray from his or her quest, which does not necessarily have to be represented by a woman. Woman is a metaphor for the physical or material temptations of life, since the hero-knight was often tempted by lust from his spiritual journey.
Campbell: "The crux of the curious difficulty lies in the fact that our conscious views of what life ought to be seldom correspond to what life really is. Generally we refuse to admit within ourselves, or within our friends, the fullness of that pushing, self-protective, malodorous, carnivorous, lecherous fever which is the very nature of the organic cell. Rather, we tend to perfume, whitewash, and reinterpret; meanwhile imagining that all the flies in the ointment, all the hairs in the soup, are the faults of some unpleasant someone else. But when it suddenly dawns on us, or is forced to our attention that everything we think or do is necessarily tainted with the odor of the flesh, then, not uncommonly, there is experienced a moment of revulsion: life, the acts of life, the organs of life, woman in particular as the great symbol of life, become intolerable to the pure, the pure, pure soul. The seeker of the life beyond life must press beyond (the woman), surpass the temptations of her call, and soar to the immaculate ether beyond."
Atonement with the Father
In this step the person must confront and be initiated by whatever holds the ultimate power in his or her life. In many myths and stories this is the father, or a father figure who has life and death power. This is the center point of the journey. All the previous steps have been moving into this place, all that follow will move out from it. Although this step is most frequently symbolized by an encounter with a male entity, it does not have to be a male; just someone or thing with incredible power.
Campbell: "Atonement consists in no more than the abandonment of that self-generated double monster—the dragon thought to be God (superego) and the dragon thought to be Sin (repressed id). But this requires an abandonment of the attachment to ego itself, and that is what is difficult. One must have a faith that the father is merciful, and then a reliance on that mercy. Therewith, the center of belief is transferred outside of the bedeviling god's tight scaly ring, and the dreadful ogres dissolve. It is in this ordeal that the hero may derive hope and assurance from the helpful female figure, by whose magic (pollen charms or power of intercession) he is protected through all the frightening experiences of the father's ego-shattering initiation. For if it is impossible to trust the terrifying father-face, then one's faith must be centered elsewhere (Spider Woman, Blessed Mother); and with that reliance for support, one endures the crisis—only to find, in the end, that the father and mother reflect each other, and are in essence the same. The problem of the hero going to meet the father is to open his soul beyond terror to such a degree that he will be ripe to understand how the sickening and insane tragedies of this vast and ruthless cosmos are completely validated in the majesty of Being. The hero transcends life with its peculiar blind spot and for a moment rises to a glimpse of the source. He beholds the face of the father, understands—and the two are atoned."
Apotheosis
When someone dies a physical death, or dies to the self to live in spirit, he or she moves beyond the pairs of opposites to a state of divine knowledge, love, compassion and bliss. A more mundane way of looking at this step is that it is a period of rest, peace and fulfillment before the hero begins the return.
Campbell: "Those who know, not only that the Everlasting lies in them, but that what they, and all things, really are is the Everlasting, dwell in the groves of the wish fulfilling trees, drink the brew of immortality, and listen everywhere to the unheard music of eternal concord."
The Ultimate Boon
The ultimate boon is the achievement of the goal of the quest. It is what the person went on the journey to get. All the previous steps serve to prepare and purify the person for this step, since in many myths the boon is something transcendent like the elixir of life itself, or a plant that supplies immortality, or the holy grail.
Campbell: "The gods and goddesses then are to be understood as embodiments and custodians of the elixir of Imperishable Being but not themselves the Ultimate in its primary state. What the hero seeks through his intercourse with them is therefore not finally themselves, but their grace, i.e., the power of their sustaining substance. This miraculous energy-substance and this alone is the Imperishable; the names and forms of the deities who everywhere embody, dispense, and represent it come and go. This is the miraculous energy of the thunderbolts of Zeus, Yahweh, and the Supreme Buddha, the fertility of the rain of Viracocha, the virtue announced by the bell rung in the Mass at the consecration, and the light of the ultimate illumination of the saint and sage. Its guardians dare release it only to the duly proven."
Return
Refusal of the Return
Having found bliss and enlightenment in the other world, the hero may not want to return to the ordinary world to bestow the boon onto his fellow man.
Campbell: "When the hero-quest has been accomplished, through penetration to the source, or through the grace of some male or female, human or animal, personification, the adventurer still must return with his life-transmuting trophy. The full round, the norm of the monomyth, requires that the hero shall now begin the labor of bringing the runes of wisdom, the Golden Fleece, or his sleeping princess, back into the kingdom of humanity, where the boon may redound to the renewing of the community, the nation, the planet or the ten thousand worlds. But the responsibility has been frequently refused. Even Gautama Buddha, after his triumph, doubted whether the message of realization could be communicated, and saints are reported to have died while in the supernal ecstasy. Numerous indeed are the heroes fabled to have taken up residence forever in the blessed isle of the unaging Goddess of Immortal Being."
The Magic Flight
Sometimes the hero must escape with the boon, if it is something that the gods have been jealously guarding. It can be just as adventurous and dangerous returning from the journey as it was to go on it.
Campbell: "If the hero in his triumph wins the blessing of the goddess or the god and is then explicitly commissioned to return to the world with some elixir for the restoration of society, the final stage of his adventure is supported by all the powers of his supernatural patron. On the other hand, if the trophy has been attained against the opposition of its guardian, or if the hero's wish to return to the world has been resented by the gods or demons, then the last stage of the mythological round becomes a lively, often comical, pursuit. This flight may be complicated by marvels of magical obstruction and evasion."
Rescue from Without
Just as the hero may need guides and assistants to set out on the quest, oftentimes he or she must have powerful guides and rescuers to bring them back to everyday life, especially if the person has been wounded or weakened by the experience.
Campbell: "The hero may have to be brought back from his supernatural adventure by assistance from without. That is to say, the world may have to come and get him. For the bliss of the deep abode is not lightly abandoned in favor of the self-scattering of the wakened state. 'Who having cast off the world,' we read, 'would desire to return again? He would be only there.' And yet, in so far as one is alive, life will call. Society is jealous of those who remain away from it, and will come knocking at the door. If the hero. . . is unwilling, the disturber suffers an ugly shock; but on the other hand, if the summoned one is only delayed—sealed in by the beatitude of the state of perfect being (which resembles death)—an apparent rescue is effected, and the adventurer returns."
The Crossing of the Return Threshold
The trick in returning is to retain the wisdom gained on the quest, to integrate that wisdom into a human life, and then maybe figure out how to share the wisdom with the rest of the world.
Campbell: "The returning hero, to complete his adventure, must survive the impact of the world. Many failures attest to the difficulties of this life-affirmative threshold. The first problem of the returning hero is to accept as real, after an experience of the soul-satisfying vision of fulfillment, the passing joys and sorrows, banalities and noisy obscenities of life. Why re-enter such a world? Why attempt to make plausible, or even interesting, to men and women consumed with passion, the experience of transcendental bliss? As dreams that were momentous by night may seem simply silly in the light of day, so the poet and the prophet can discover themselves playing the idiot before a jury of sober eyes. The easy thing is to commit the whole community to the devil and retire again into the heavenly rock dwelling, close the door, and make it fast. But if some spiritual obstetrician has drawn the shimenawa across the retreat, then the work of representing eternity in time, and perceiving in time eternity, cannot be avoided" The hero returns to the world of common day and must accept it as real.
Master of Two Worlds
This step is usually represented by a transcendental hero like Jesus or Gautama Buddha. For a human hero, it may mean achieving a balance between the material and spiritual. The person has become comfortable and competent in both the inner and outer worlds.
Campbell: "Freedom to pass back and forth across the world division, from the perspective of the apparitions of time to that of the causal deep and back—not contaminating the principles of the one with those of the other, yet permitting the mind to know the one by virtue of the other—is the talent of the master. The Cosmic Dancer, declares Nietzsche, does not rest heavily in a single spot, but gaily, lightly, turns and leaps from one position to another. It is possible to speak from only one point at a time, but that does not invalidate the insights of the rest. The individual, through prolonged psychological disciplines, gives up completely all attachment to his personal limitations, idiosyncrasies, hopes and fears, no longer resists the self-annihilation that is prerequisite to rebirth in the realization of truth, and so becomes ripe, at last, for the great at-one-ment. His personal ambitions being totally dissolved, he no longer tries to live but willingly relaxes to whatever may come to pass in him; he becomes, that is to say, an anonymity."[12]
Freedom to Live
Mastery leads to freedom from the fear of death, which in turn is the freedom to live.[citation needed] This is sometimes referred to as living in the moment, neither anticipating the future nor regretting the past.
Campbell: "The hero is the champion of things becoming, not of things become, because he is. "Before Abraham was, I AM." He does not mistake apparent changelessness in time for the permanence of Being, nor is he fearful of the next moment (or of the 'other thing'), as destroying the permanent with its change. 'Nothing retains its own form; but Nature, the greater renewer, ever makes up forms from forms. Be sure there's nothing perishes in the whole universe; it does but vary and renew its form.' Thus the next moment is permitted to come to pass." [17]
Criticism
Scholars have questioned the validity or usefulness of the monomyth category.
According to Northup (2006), mainstream scholarship of comparative mythology since Campbell has moved away from "highly general and universal" categories in general.[13] This attitude is illustrated by e.g. Consentino (1998), who remarks "It is just as important to stress differences as similarities, to avoid creating a (Joseph) Campbell soup of myths that loses all local flavor."[14] Similarly, Ellwood (1999) stated "A tendency to think in generic terms of people, races ... is undoubtedly the profoundest flaw in mythological thinking."[15]
Others have found the categories Campbell works with so vague as to be meaningless, and lacking the support required of scholarly argument: Crespi (1990), writing in response to Campbell's filmed presentation of his model[16] characterized it as "...unsatisfying from a social science perspective. Campbell's ethnocentrism will raise objections, and his analytic level is so abstract and devoid of ethnographic context that myth loses the very meanings supposed to be embedded in the 'hero.'" In Sacred Narrative: Readings in the Theory of Myth (1984), editor Alan Dundes dismisses Campbell's work, characterizing him as a popularizer: "like most universalists, he is content to merely assert universality rather than bother to document it. […] If Campbell's generalizations about myth are not substantiated, why should students consider his work?"[17]
In a similar vein, American philosopher John Shelton Lawrence and American religious scholar Robert Jewett have discussed an "American Monomyth" in many of their books, The American Monomyth, The Myth of the American Superhero, and Captain America and the Crusade Against Evil: The Dilemma of Zealous Nationalism. They present this as an American reaction to the Campbellian monomyth. The "American Monomyth" storyline is: A community in a harmonious paradise is threatened by evil; normal institutions fail to contend with this threat; a selfless superhero emerges to renounce temptations and carry out the redemptive task; aided by fate, his decisive victory restores the community to its paradisiacal condition; the superhero then recedes into obscurity.[12]
The monomyth has also been criticized for focusing on the masculine journey. From Girl to Goddess: The Heroine's Journey through Myth and Legend (2010), by Valerie Estelle Frankel, sets out what Frankel considers the steps of the female hero's journey, which is different from Campbell's monomyth.[18]
According to changingminds.org, "His much admired and much-copied pattern has also been criticized as leading to 'safe' moviemaking, in which writers use his structure as a template, thus leading to 'boring' repeats, albeit in different clothes."[19]
Popular culture
In 1977, The American Monomyth identified a monomyth template specific to the conventions of works of fiction in American popular culture:
- "A community in a harmonious paradise is threatened by evil; normal institutions fail to contend with this threat; a selfless superhero emerges to renounce temptations and carry out the redemptive task; aided by fate, his decisive victory restores the community to its paradisiacal condition; the superhero then recedes into obscurity."
In two later books, The Myth of the American Superhero (2002) and Captain America And The Crusade Against Evil: The Dilemma Of Zealous Nationalism (2003), the authors extend the thesis by using examples from both American popular culture and the American religious tradition.
The monomyth concept has been very popular in American literary studies and writing guides since at least the 1970s. Christopher Vogler, a Hollywood film producer and writer, created a 7-page company memo, A Practical Guide to The Hero With a Thousand Faces,[20] based on Campbell's work. Vogler's memo was later developed into the late 1990s book, The Writer's Journey: Mythic Structure For Writers. George Lucas' Star Wars (1977) was notably classified as monomyth almost as soon as it came out.[21] Numerous other works of popular fiction have been forwarded as examples of the monomyth template, including Spenser's The Fairie Queene,[22] Melville's Moby Dick,[23] Charlotte Brontë's Jane Eyre,[24] works by Charles Dickens, Faulkner, Maugham, J. D. Salinger,[25] Hemingway,[26] Mark Twain,[27] W. B. Yeats,[28] C. S. Lewis,[29] and J. R. R. Tolkien,[30] Seamus Heaney[31] and Stephen King,[32] among numerous others.
In addition to the extensive discussion between Campbell and Bill Moyers broadcast in 1988 on PBS as The Power of Myth (Filmed at "Skywalker Ranch"), on Campbell's influence on the Star Wars films, Lucas himself gave an extensive interview for the biography Joseph Campbell: A Fire in the Mind (Larsen and Larsen, 2002, pages 541-543) on this topic. In this interview, Lucas states that in the early 1970s after completing his early film, American Graffiti, "it came to me that there really was no modern use of mythology...so that's when I started doing more strenuous research on fairy tales, folklore and mythology, and I started reading Joe's books. Before that I hadn't read any of Joe's books.... It was very eerie because in reading The Hero with A Thousand Faces I began to realize that my first draft of Star Wars was following classical motifs"(p. 541). Twelve years after the making of The Power of Myth, Moyers and Lucas met again for the 1999 interview, the Mythology of Star Wars with George Lucas & Bill Moyers, to further discuss the impact of Campbell's work on Lucas's films.[33] In addition, the National Air and Space Museum of the Smithsonian Institution sponsored an exhibit during the late 1990s called Star Wars: The Magic of Myth which discussed the ways in which Campbell's work shaped the Star Wars films[34] A companion guide of the same name was published in 1997.
While Frank Herbert's Dune (1965) on the surface appears to follow the monomyth, this was in fact to subvert it and take a critical view, as the author said in 1979, "The bottom line of the Dune trilogy is: beware of heroes. Much better [to] rely on your own judgment, and your own mistakes."[35] He wrote in 1985, "Dune was aimed at this whole idea of the infallible leader because my view of history says that mistakes made by a leader (or made in a leader's name) are amplified by the numbers who follow without question."[36]
Science fiction author David Brin in a 1999 Salon article criticized the monomyth template as supportive of "despotism and tyranny", indicating that he thinks modern popular fiction should strive to depart from it in order to support more progressivist values.[37]
Self-help movement and therapy
Poet Robert Bly, Michael J. Meade, and others involved in the men's movement have applied and expanded the concepts of the hero's journey and the monomyth as a metaphor for personal spiritual and psychological growth, particularly in the mythopoetic men's movement.[38][39]
Characteristic of the mythopoetic men's movement is a tendency to retell fairy tales and engage in their exegesis as a tool for personal insight. Using frequent references to archetypes as drawn from Jungian analytical psychology, the movement focuses on issues of gender role, gender identity and wellness for modern men.[39] Advocates would often engage in storytelling with music, these acts being seen as a modern extension to a form of "new age shamanism" popularized by Michael Harner at approximately the same time.
Among its most famous advocates were the poet Robert Bly, whose book Iron John: A Book About Men was a best-seller, being an exegesis of the fairy tale "Iron John" by the Brothers Grimm.[38]
The mythopoetic men's movement spawned a variety of groups and workshops, led by authors such as Bly and Robert L. Moore.[39] Some serious academic work came out of this movement, including the creation of various magazines and non-profit organizations, such as the Mankind Project.[38]
Bibliotherapy
The monomyth, or hero's journey, can help people suffering from adjustment disorder cope with new life transitions.[40] Using bibliotherapy to help patients with adjustment disorder is a five stage process: Introduction of concepts, selection of text, identification and projection, abreaction and catharsis, and insight and integration.
Introduction of the concepts is talking to the patient about bibliotherapy as well as archetypes and the hero’s journey.
Selection of text allows the patient to pick a book or story that they enjoy or would be interested in, and most fictional literature has elements of the hero’s journey.
Identification and projection is when the patient identifies themes, symbols, and archetypes in the text, then the therapist helps the patient to project themselves into the story.
Abreaction and catharsis is when the patient has an emotional response to the story, usually due to factors relating to their own lives. Insight and integration is when the patient looks back on the story and what the hero did to overcome their struggles, and try to do similar things to overcome their struggles.
By using bibliotherapy, a patient can project their struggles onto the hero in the story and draw parallels between the story and their real life.
See also
Other mythology
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Narratology and writing instructions
Genres |
Notes
- ↑ Monomyth Website, ORIAS, UC Berkeley accessed 2009-11-03
- ↑ Campbell, Joseph. The Hero with a Thousand Faces. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1949. p.23.
- ↑ Campbell, Joseph and Henry Morton Robinson. A Skeleton Key to Finnegans Wake, 1944. Joseph Campbell, The Hero with a Thousand Faces. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1949. p. 30, n35. "At the carryfour with awlus plawshus, their happyass cloudious! And then and too the trivials! And their bivouac! And his monomyth! Ah ho! Say no more about it! I'm sorry!" James Joyce, Finnegans Wake. NY: Viking (1939) p. 581
- ↑ John Collier, foreword to a 1987 reprint of Mabel Dodge Luhan (1937) Edge of Taos Desert: An Escape to Reality, p. viii "The myth is obviously related to what one might call the monomyth of paradise regained that has been articulated and transformed in a variety of ways since the early European explorations." Steven Ashe, Qabalah of 50 Gates (2008), p. 21: "those aspects of legend that are symbolically equivalent within the folk lore of different cultures"
- ↑ "Dionysus, Ivanov's 'monomyth,' as Omry Ronen has put it, is the symbol of the symbol. One could also name Dionysus, the myth of the myth, the metamyth which signifies the very principle of mediation, [...]" J. Douglas Clayton (ed.), Issues in Russian Literature Before 1917 (1989), p. 212.
- ↑ The Hero's Journey, New World Library 2003, p. xxi.
- ↑ Lévi-Strauss gave the term "mytheme" wide circulation from the 1960s, in 1955 he used "gross constituent unit", in Lévi-Strauss, Claude (1955). "The Structural study of myth". Journal of American Folklore 68 (270): 428–444. doi:10.2307/536768. ISSN 0021-8715. JSTOR 536768. OCLC 1782260. reprinted as "The structural study of myth", Structural Anthropology, 1963:206-31; "the true constituent units of a myth are not the isolated relations but bundles of such relations" (Lévi-Strauss 1963:211). The term mytheme first appears in Lévi-Strauss' 1958 French version of the work.
- ↑ Морфология сказки ("the morphology of folk-tales"), Leningrad (1928).
- ↑ Leeming, David Adams. Mythology: The Voyage of the Hero. New York: Harper & Row. 1981.
- ↑ The hero's journey: Joseph Campbell on his life and work. Edited and with an Introduction by Phil Cousineau. Forward by Stuart L. Brown, Executive Editor. New York: Harper and Row, 1990.
- ↑ Christopher Vogel, The Writer's Journey: Mythic Structure For Writers (2007)
- 1 2 Jewett, Robert and John Shelton Lawrence (1977) The American Monomyth. New York: Doubleday.
- ↑ Northup, p. 8
- ↑ "African Oral Narrative Traditions" in Foley, John Miles, ed., "Teaching Oral Traditions." NY: Modern Language Association, 1998, p. 183
- ↑ Ellwood, Robert, "The Politics of Myth: A Study of C.G. Jung, Mircea Eliade, and Joseph Campbell", SUNY Press, September 1999. Cf. p.x
- ↑ American Anthropologist, 92:4 (December 1990), p. 1104
- ↑ Web.archive.org
- ↑ Valerie Estelle Frankel (19 October 2010). From Girl to Goddess: The Heroine's Journey through Myth and Legend. McFarland. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-7864-5789-2.
- ↑ "Campbell's 'Hero's Journey' Monomyth". changingminds.org. Retrieved 2015-12-15.
- ↑ The Writer's Journey accessed 2011-03-26
- ↑ Andrew Gordon, 'Star Wars: A Myth for Our Time', Literature/Film Quarterly 6.4 (Fall 1978): 314–26. Matthew Kapell, John Shelton Lawrence, Finding the Force of the Star Wars Franchise: Fans, Merchandise, & Critics, Peter Lang (2006), p. 5.
- ↑ Edmund Spenser's Faerie Queene and the Monomyth of Joseph Campbell: Essays in Interpretation, E. Mellen Press, 2000.
- ↑ Khalid Mohamed Abdullah, Ishmael's Sea Journey and the Monomyth Archetypal Theory in Melville's "Moby-Dick", California State University, Dominguez Hills, 2008.
- ↑ Justin Edward Erickson, A Heroine's Journey: The Feminine Monomyth in Jane Eyre (2012).
- ↑ Leslie Ross, Manifestations of the Monomyth in Fiction: Dickens, Faulkner, Maugham, and Salinger, University of South Dakota, 1992.
- ↑ John James Bajger, The Hemingway Hero and the Monomyth: An Examination of the Hero Quest Myth in the Nick Adams Stories, Florida Atlantic University, 2003.
- ↑ Brian Claude McKinney, The Monomyth and Mark Twain's Novels, San Francisco State College, 1967.
- ↑ illiam Edward McMillan, The Monomyth in W.B. Yeats' Cuchulain Play Cycle, University of Illinois at Chicago Circle, 1979.
- ↑ Stephanie L. Phillips, Ransom's Journey as a Monomyth Hero in C.S. Lewis' Out of the Silent Planet, Perelandra, and That Hideous Strength, Hardin-Simmons University, 2006.
- ↑ Paul McCord, The Monomyth Hero in Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings, 1977.
- ↑ Henry Hart, Seamus Heaney, Poet of Contrary Progressions, Syracuse University Press (1993), p. 165.
- ↑ , Stephen King's "The Dark Tower": a modern myth University essay from Luleå tekniska universitet/Språk och kultur Author: Henrik Fåhraeus; [2008].
- ↑ Films.com
- ↑ "Star Wars @ NASM, Unit 1, Introduction Page". si.edu.
- ↑ Clareson, Thomas (1992). Understanding Contemporary American Science Fiction: the Formative Period. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press. pp. 169–172. ISBN 0-87249-870-0.
- ↑ Herbert, Frank (1985). "Introduction". Eye. ISBN 0-425-08398-5.
- ↑ Salon Arts & Entertainment | "Star Wars" despots vs. "Star Trek" populists "By offering valuable insights into this revered storytelling tradition, Joseph Campbell did indeed shed light on common spiritual traits that seem shared by all human beings. And I’ll be the first to admit it’s a superb formula — one that I’ve used at times in my own stories and novels. [...] It is essential to understand the radical departure taken by genuine science fiction, which comes from a diametrically opposite literary tradition — a new kind of storytelling that often rebels against those very same archetypes Campbell venerated. An upstart belief in progress, egalitarianism, positive-sum games — and the slim but real possibility of decent human institutions."
- 1 2 3 Boston Globe accessed 2009-11-03
- 1 2 3 Use by Bly of Campbell's monomyth work accessed 2009-11-03
- ↑ Duffy, Jason (2010). "A Heroic Journey: Re-Conceptualizing Adjustment Disorder Through the Lens of the Heo's Quest". Journal of Systemic Therapies.
References
- Campbell, Joseph. The Hero's Journey: Joseph Campbell on His Life and Work (1949, 2nd ed. 1968, 3rd ed. 2008 ).
- Campbell, Joseph. "The Hero with a Thousand Faces." Princeton University Press: Princeton, NJ. 1949
- MacKey-Kallis, Susan. The Hero and the Perennial Journey Home in American Film. University of Pennsylvania Press (2001). ISBN 0-8122-1768-3
- Northup, Lesley. "Myth-Placed Priorities: Religion and the Study of Myth". Religious Studies Review 32.1(2006): 5-10.
- Vogler, Christopher. The Writer's Journey: Mythic Structure For Writers. Studio City, CA: Michael Wiese Productions, 1998.
- Voytilla, Stuart and Vogler, Christopher. Myth & the Movies: Discovering the Myth Structure of 50 Unforgettable Films. Studio City, CA: Michael Wiese Productions, 1999. ISBN 0-941188-66-3
- Amanieux Laureline, Ce héros qui est en chacun de nous, book in French on the monomyth of Campbell, Albin Michel, 2011.
Books based upon interviews with Campbell
- The Hero's Journey: Joseph Campbell on his Life and Work Edited and with an Introduction by Phil Cousineau. Forward by Stuart L. Brown, Executive Editor. New York: Harper and Row, 1990.
- The Power of Myth (with Bill Moyers and Betty Sue Flowers, ed.), 1988
DVD/discography
External links
- The Monomyth Cycle
- Examples of Each Stage of a Hero's Journey in Star Wars and The Matrix
- Hero's Journey
- The Romantic Appeal of Joseph Campbell
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