High-heeled footwear

"High Heels" redirects here. For the film by Pedro Almodóvar, see High Heels (film).
A pair of pumps / court shoes with 12 cm (4 ¾") stiletto heels
High-heeled sandals
Russian empress Catherine the Great's mules
An example of an Ellie-821, an 8-inch clear high heel

High-heeled footwear (often abbreviated as high heels or simply heels) is footwear that raises the heel of the wearer's foot significantly higher than the toes. When both the heel and the toes are raised equal amounts, as in a platform shoe, it is technically not considered to be a high heel; however, there are also high-heeled platform shoes. High heels tend to give the aesthetic illusion of longer, more slender legs. High heels come in a wide variety of styles, and the heels are found in many different shapes, including stiletto, pump (court shoe), block, tapered, blade, and wedge.

According to the Spine Health Institute. While 28% of women will never wear high heels in their lifetime, 72% of women will wear high heels at some point. Annual statistics of women wearing high heels daily have fluctuated between 1986 to 2003, from 68% to 39%. Women wearing high heels daily according to age, were split into three ranges: 49% of women 18–24 years old; 42% of women 25–49 years old and 34% of women ages 50 and older. Women also wear heels for different reasons, such as: special occasions (77%), parties and dinner (50%), dancing (33%), and to work (31%).[1]

According to high-fashion shoe websites like Jimmy Choo and Gucci, a "low heel" is considered less than 2.5 inches (6.4 centimeters), while heels between 2.5 and 3.5 inches (6.4 and 8.9 cm) are considered "mid heels", and anything over that is considered a "high heel". The apparel industry would appear to take a simpler view: the term "high heels" covers heels ranging from 2 to 5 inches (5.1 to 12.7 cm) or more. Extremely high-heeled shoes, such as those exceeding 6 inches (15 cm), strictly speaking, are no longer considered apparel but rather something akin to "jewelry for the feet". They are worn for display or the enjoyment of the wearer.

Although high heels are now usually worn only by girls and women, there are shoe designs worn by both genders that have elevated heels, including cowboy boots and Cuban heels. In previous ages, men also wore high heels.

In the ninth century, Persian horseback warriors wore an extended heel made for keeping feet from sliding out of stirrups. This also kept riders still when they needed to stand up and shoot arrows.

History

Ancient Egypt

Early depictions of high heels appear on ancient Egyptian murals, dating back to 3500 BC. These murals depict Egyptian nobility wearing heels to set them apart from the lower class, who would normally go barefoot. Heeled shoes were worn by both men and women, and most commonly for ceremonial purposes. However, high heels also served a practical purpose for Egyptian butchers who wore them in order to walk over the bloodied bodies of animal carcasses. During Egyptian times, heels were leather pieces that were held together by lacing to form the symbol of “Ankh”, signifying life.[2]

Ancient Greece and Rome

Platform sandals called “kothorni” or “buskins” were shoes with high wooden cork soles worn during ancient Greek and Roman era. They were particularly popular among the actors who would wear them to differentiate the social classes and importance of each character. In ancient Rome, where sex trade was legal, high heels were used to identify those within the trade to potential clients; thus high heels became associated with prostitution.[3]

Medieval Europe

Medieval Europeans wore wooden-soled patten shoes, which were ancestors to contemporary high heels. Elizabeth Semmelhack, curator at Toronto's Bata Shoe Museum, traces the high heel to Persian [4] horse riders in the Near East who used high heels for functionality, because they helped hold the rider's foot in stirrups.[5] She states that this footwear is depicted on a 9th-century ceramic bowl from Persia.[6][7]

It is sometimes suggested that raised heels were a response to the problem of the rider's foot slipping forward in stirrups while riding.[6] The "rider's heel", approximately 1 1⁄2 inches (3.8 cm) high, appeared in Europe around 1600.[5] The leading edge was canted forward to help grip the stirrup, and the trailing edge was canted forward to prevent the elongated heel from catching on underbrush or rock while backing up, such as in on-foot combat. These features are evident today in riding boots, notably cowboy boots.

Contemporary scene

Since the Second World War, high heels have fallen in and out of popular fashion several times, most notably in the late 1990s, when lower heels and even flats predominated. Lower heels were preferred during the late 1960s and early 1970s as well, but higher heels returned in the late 1980s and early 1990s. The shape of the fashionable heel has also changed from block (1970s) to tapered (1990s), and stiletto (1950s, early 1960s, 1980s, and post-2000).

Today, high heels are typically worn with heights varying from a kitten heel of 1.5 inches (3.8 cm) to a stiletto heel (or spike heel) of 5 inches (13 cm) or more. Extremely high-heeled shoes, such as those higher than 6 inches (15 cm), are normally worn only for aesthetic reasons and are not considered practical. Court shoes have conservative styles and are often used for work and formal occasions, while more adventurous styles are common for evening wear and dancing. High heels have caused significant controversy in the medical field lately, with many podiatrists seeing patients whose severe foot problems have been caused almost exclusively by high-heel wear.

The wedge heel is informally another style of the heel, where the heel is in a wedge form and continues all the way to the toe of the shoe.[8]

In terms of design, high heels can be seen with plain construction or with embellishment. Depending on the design concept, embellishment materials include leather, wood, metal chain, plastic appliqués, lace, and others. The majority of embellishments are for aesthetic purposes. The rest are for functional support.[9]

Pros and cons

Negative effects

The case against wearing high heels is based almost exclusively on health and practical reasons,[10] including that they:

Positive effects

The case for wearing high heels is based almost exclusively on aesthetic reasons, including that they:

During the 16th century, European royalty, such as Catherine de Medici and Mary I of England, started wearing high-heeled shoes to make them look taller or larger than life. By 1580, men also wore them, and a person with authority or wealth was often referred to as "well-heeled".[15]

In modern society, high-heeled shoes are a part of women's fashion, perhaps more as a sexual prop. High heels force the body to tilt, emphasizing the buttocks and breasts. They also emphasize the role of feet in sexuality, and the act of putting on stockings or high heels is often seen as an erotic act.[16] This desire to look sexy and erotic continues to drive women to wear high-heeled shoes, despite causing significant pain in the ball of the foot, or bunions or corns, or hammer toe. A survey conducted by the American Podiatric Medical Association showed some 42% of women admitted that they would wear a shoe they liked even if it gave them discomfort.[17]

Types of high heels

Types of heels found on high-heeled footwear include:[18]

Men and heels

Elizabeth Semmelhack, curator for the Bata Shoe Museum, traces the high heel to male horse-riding warriors in the Middle East who used high heels for functionality, because they help hold the rider's foot in stirrups. She states that the earliest high heel she has seen is depicted on a 9th-century AD ceramic bowl from Persia.[6][19]

Since the late 18th century, men's shoes have featured lower heels than most women's shoes. Some attribute it to Napoleon who disliked high heels; others to the general trend of minimizing non-functional items in men's clothing.[20] Cowboy boots remain a notable exception, and they continue to be made with a taller riding heel. The two-inch Cuban heel featured in many styles of men's boot derives its heritage from certain Latino roots, most notably various forms of Spanish and Latin American dance, including Flamenco, as most recently evidenced by Joaquín Cortés. Cuban heels were first widely popularized, however, by Beatle boots, as worn by the English rock group The Beatles during their introduction to the United States. Some say this saw the re-introduction of higher-heeled footwear for men in the 1960s and 1970s [21][22] (in Saturday Night Fever, John Travolta's character wears a Cuban heel in the opening sequence). The singer Prince was known to wear high heels, as well as Elton John. Bands such as Mötley Crüe and Sigue Sigue Sputnik predominantly wore high heels during the 1980s. Current well-known male heel wearers include Justin Tranter, lead singer of Semi Precious Weapons, and Bill Kaulitz, the lead singer of Tokio Hotel. Popular R&B singer Miguel was wearing his trademark Cuban heels during the "legdrop" incident at the 2013 Billboard Music Awards.Winklepicker boots often feature a Cuban heel.

Accessories

The stiletto of certain kinds of high heels can damage some types of floors. Such damage can be prevented by heel protectors, also called covers, guards, or taps, which fit over the stiletto tips to keep them from direct, marring contact with delicate surfaces, such as linoleum (rotogravure) or urethane-varnished wooden floors. Heel protectors are widely used in ballroom dancing, as such dances are often held on wooden flooring. The bottom of most heels usually has a plastic or metal heel tip that wears away with use and can be easily replaced. Dress heels (high-heeled shoes with elaborate decoration) are worn for formal occasions.

Other uses for specialized high heel protectors make it feasible to walk on grass or soft earth, but not mud, sand, and water, during outdoor events, removing the need to have specialized carpeting or flooring on an outdoor or soft surface. Certain heel protectors also improve the balance of the shoe and reduce the strain that certain high heeled or stiletto shoes can place on the foot.

Health effects

Foot and tendon problems

High-heeled shoes slant the foot forward and down while bending the toes up. The more the feet are forced into this position, the more it may cause the gastrocnemius muscle (part of the calf muscle) to shorten.[23] This may cause problems when the wearer chooses lower heels or flat-soled shoes. When the foot slants forward, a much greater weight is transferred to the ball of the foot and the toes, increasing the likelihood of damage to the underlying soft tissue that supports the foot. In many shoes, style dictates function, either compressing the toes or forcing them together, possibly resulting in blisters, corns, hammer toes, bunions (hallux valgus), Morton's neuroma, plantar fasciitis and many other medical conditions, most of which are permanent and require surgery to alleviate the pain. High heels, because they tip the foot forward, put pressure on the lower back by making the rump push outwards, crushing the lower back vertebrae and contracting the muscles of the lower back.

If the wearer believes it is not possible to avoid high heels altogether, it is suggested that the wearer spend at least a third of the time they spend on their feet in contour-supporting "flat" shoes (such as exercise sandals), or well-cushioned sneaker-type shoes, saving high heels for special occasions; or if it is a necessity in their job, such as a lawyer, it is recommended that they limit the height of the heel that they wear, or, if they are in court, remain seated as much as possible to avoid damage to the feet. It is also recommended to wear a belt if possible with heels, because the elevation of the foot and extension of the leg can cause pants to become looser than wanted. In the winter time, one could also use seat warmers with heels to relax and loosen muscles all over the body.

One of the most critical problems of high-heeled shoe design involves a properly constructed toe-box. Improper construction here can cause the most damage to one's foot. Toe-boxes that are too narrow force the toes to be crammed too close together. Ensuring that room exists for the toes to assume a normal separation so that high-heel wear remains an option rather than a debilitating practice is an important issue in improving the wearability of high-heeled fashion shoes.

Wide heels do not necessarily offer more stability, and any raised heel with too much width, such as found in "blade-heeled" or "block-heeled" shoes, induces unhealthy side-to-side torque to the ankles with every step, stressing them unnecessarily, while creating additional impact on the balls of the feet. Thus, the best design for a high heel is one with a narrower width, where the heel is closer to the front, more solidly under the ankle, where the toe box provides room enough for the toes, and where forward movement of the foot in the shoe is kept in check by material snug across the instep, rather than by the toes being rammed forward and jamming together in the toe box or crushed into the front of the toe box.

Pelvic floor muscle tone

A 2008 study by Cerruto et al. reported results that suggest that wearing high heels may improve the muscle tone of a woman's pelvic floor.[24] The authors speculated that this could have a beneficial effect on female stress urinary incontinence.

How to Lessen Health Effects

The Spine Health Institute gives a few recommendations for women that will continue to wear high heels for various reasons, including:

Feminist attitudes

The high heel has been a central battleground of sexual politics ever since the emergence of the women's liberation movement of the 1970s. Many second-wave feminists rejected what they regarded as constricting standards of female beauty, created for the subordination and objectifying of women and self-perpetuated by reproductive competition and women's own aesthetics.[25]

The British-American journalist Hadley Freeman wrote, "For me, high heels are just fancy foot binding with a three-figure price tag", although she supported the freedom to choose what to wear and stated that "one person's embrace of their sexuality is another person's patriarchal oppression."[26]

See also

References

  1. 1 2 "How High Heels Affect Your Body". Spine Health Institute. Retrieved 2016-02-07.
  2. ↑ "High Heel Shoes | Articles on History". www.articlesonhistory.com. Retrieved 2015-11-05.
  3. ↑ "Dangerous Elegance: A History of High-Heeled Shoes". www.randomhistory.com. Retrieved 2015-11-05.
  4. ↑ "High heels: gift of Iranian soldiers to the world". Kodoom.com. Retrieved 30 April 2016.
  5. 1 2 William Kremer (25 January 2013). "Why did men stop wearing high heels?". BBC News. Retrieved February 3, 2013.
  6. 1 2 3 Maribeth Keane and Bonnie Monte, Sex, Power, and High Heels: An Interview with Shoe Curator Elizabeth Semmelhack, Collectors Weekly, 18 June 2010
  7. ↑ Kremer, William (2013-01-25). "BBC News - Why did men stop wearing high heels?". Bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 2013-06-15.
  8. ↑ "Wedges - What to Wear with Wedge Heeled Shoes". Shoes.about.com. 2013-05-06. Retrieved 2013-06-15.
  9. ↑ Look into the Design of These Stilettos with Embellishment heeladdict.com | Retrieved 2016-02-02
  10. ↑ Robinson, Caroline. "Health Check: how high heels harm and how to make it better". The Conversation. The Conversation. Retrieved 25 February 2014.
  11. ↑ "BBC NEWS - Health - High heels 'may improve sex life'". Retrieved 30 April 2016.
  12. ↑ Burkhard, Fiona. "Female urology and reconstruction". UroSource. Retrieved 29 March 2014.
  13. ↑ Cerruto MA, Vedovi E, Mantovani W (2008). "Women pay attention to shoe heels: besides causing schizophrenia they might affect your pelvic floor muscle activity!!". Eur Urol. 53 (5): 1094–5. doi:10.1016/j.eururo.2008.01.046. PMID 18243504.
  14. ↑ Bowman, Katy (29 August 2011). "High Heels, Pelvic Floor, and Bad Science". katysays.com.
  15. ↑ "Dangerous Elegance: A History of High-Heeled Shoes". Random History. Retrieved 1 July 2010.
  16. ↑ Danesi, Marcel (1999). Of cigarettes, high heels, and other interesting things: an introduction to semiotics. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 13. ISBN 0-312-21084-1.
  17. ↑ Bouchez, Colette. "Tips to Avoid Foot Pain From High Heels". WebMD. Retrieved 8 July 2010.
  18. ↑ Glossary of Terms for Women's Shoe Styles
  19. ↑ "The Crispin Colloquy • View topic - Origins of the Heel". Retrieved 30 April 2016.
  20. ↑ Avins, Jenni (23 May 2015). "Why did men stop wearing high heels, anyway?". Quartz (publication). Retrieved 24 May 2015.
  21. ↑ Kippen, Cameron. "Beatle Boots". The History of Boots. Department of Podiatry. Archived from the original on 13 December 2007. Retrieved 11 October 2007. The Boot saw the reintroduction of heels for men.
  22. ↑ "Modern Living: The Elevated Look". TIME.com. 21 August 1972. Retrieved 30 April 2016.
  23. ↑ Research by Marco Narici et al. (Journal of Experimental Biology) determined that persistent usage of high-heeled shoes causes the calf muscle to shorten – an average of 13% in their study – while the Achilles tendon becomes significantly thicker and stiffer. See The Economist, 17 July 2010, p. 84 for discussion.
  24. ↑ Cerruto, MA; Vedovi, E; Mantovani, W (May 2008). Eur Urol 53 (5): 1094–5 http://www.europeanurology.com/article/S0302-2838%2808%2900055-9/fulltext. Missing or empty |title= (help)
  25. ↑ "Heights of madness". Retrieved 30 April 2016.
  26. ↑ Freeman, Hadley (28 January 2013). "Can a feminist wear high heels?". The Guardian (London). Retrieved 22 November 2014.

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