History of Hawaii

Further information: Historical outline of Hawaii

The Western, recorded history of Hawaii starts with the arrival of Captain James Cook and the European documentation of the Hawaiian Islands. When Captain Cook arrived in Hawaii in 1778,[1] a chain of islands divided into small chiefdoms ruled by chiefs who often warred with each other and lived according to the politico-religious Kapu System. There was a complicated land tenure system, which has been compared to the feudal system of medieval Europe although distinguishes itself since it ensures alike access to resources ranging from the mountains to the ocean.[2] A hierarchical society paralleled this pattern of land division. At the top, a chief controlled each (ahupuaa) ; land agents (konohiki) and subchiefs subordinate to the chief controlled smaller amounts of land, and at the bottom of the hierarchy common farmers worked land under the their chief's divine rule. Commoners also had plots for their own use and had certain limited gathering rights in the noncultivated lands of the ahupuaa.[3] Unlike the Western concept that land was property to be owned or conquered, the āina (Hawaiian for land) was a sacred, living part of the cosmos literally meaning "that which feeds us." The Hawaiian perspective was that chiefs had stewardship over the land, and its stewardship under the kapu system would have to follow the divine order and balance of the universe, or pono.

Kingdom of Hawaii 1795-1893

Main article: House of Kamehameha
Kamehameha I, founder of the Kingdom of Hawaii

Kamehameha I 1795-1819

Main article: Kamehameha I

In 1795, the traditional rivalries between island chiefs ended when Kamehameha I, using Western arms and allies, brought all of the islands, with the exception of Kaua‘i, under his control. In 1810, Kamehameha gained the allegiance of Kaua‘i’s chief. While Kamehameha divided the lands among his subchiefs in the customary way, he also created another administrative level by appointing loyal chiefs to be governors on each of the islands.

Following unification a proliferation of administrative levels and a rise in palace court life followed. Economically the demand for European and Oriental goods rose substantially and the Hawaiian economy had to supply a now enlarged aristocratic chief class with imported luxuries. While the economy thus turned from one primarily aimed at subsistence to one enmeshed in international trade, the commoners' condition worsened as diseases destroyed much of the population, traditional notions of feudal responsibility were disrupted, and an onerous tax system was instituted.[4]

In the year of his death, in 1819 Kamehameha abolished the kapu system when he induced the young Liholiho to partake of a meal with a number of chiefly women.

Kamehameha II 1819-1824

Main article: Kamehameha II
Kamehameha II in England with Queen and entourage

After Kamehameha’s death in 1819, his son Liholiho, more commonly known as, (Kamehameha II) took the throne and, with the Dowager Queen Ka‘ahumanu, ruled until 1825. Kamehameha II did not follow ahupua'a pattern and redistribute land to his supporters,[5] but allowed the majority of his father’s subchiefs to retain their land. Kamehameha II died, along with his wife, Queen Kamāmalu in 1824 on a state visit to England where they succumbed to measles. He was King for only 5 years.

Kamehameha III 1825-1854

Main article: Kamehameha III
Painting by Robert Dampier, 1825, Honolulu Museum of Art

Kamehameha III (born Kauikeaouli) (1813–December 15, 1854) was the King of Hawaii from 1825 to 1854. His reign saw significant developments and transformation of the Kingdom of Hawaii to a constitutional monarchy as well as an deal with influx of immigrants to offset the native Hawaiian depopulation. When Kamehameha III took the throne at the age of 12 the Council of Chiefs convinced him to adopt a formal policy, later called the Law of 1825, which allowed chiefs to retain their lands upon the death of the king and permitted hereditary succession.[6]

1839 Constitution of the Kingdom Hawaii

By 1839 the Hawaiian Bill of Rights, also known as the Constitution of 1839,[7] was an attempt by Kamehameha III and his chiefs to guarantee that the all people would have rights, and provided the groundwork for a free enterprise system.[8] The document, which had an attached code of laws, was drafted by Lahainaluna missionary school alumni Boaz Mahune, revised by the Council of Chiefs and signed by Kamehameha III in June 1839.[9]

1840 Constitution of the Kingdom Hawaii

The 1840 Constitution of the Kingdom of Hawaii established a constitutional monarchy. It established executive, legislative and judicial branches of government. The document established individual property rights and provided for removal of any chief who violated the constitution.[10] The Constitution of 1840, formally declared that the land belonged to the chiefs and people, with the king as trustee for all land prohibiting Chiefs and commoners from selling land without the King's permission. Similarly with commoners abandoning tenants and moving to the booming towns of Honolulu and Lahaina the passed a month later Act of Nov. 9, 1840 titled the (Residuum lands Act) made abandoning such land illegal without cause. Those who had already left their land could apply to the governor or king for new lands; however they could not sell without the King's consent (to prevent alienation to foreigners).[11]

Act of Dec. 10, 1845 Mahele

By 1845, the land tenure system could neither maintain itself in the face of a hostile foreign world nor accommodate itself to the wishes of that world. The government's response to these problems was The Land Commission.[12] The Commission did not act on the bulk of Hawaiian land held by the King and his Court. Instead it focused its immediate attention on building lots in Honolulu and Lahaina since this land had already left the feudal production scheme.[13] The Commission likewise issued land patents based upon their awards. Ultimately the Commission was thus able to resolve a number of land disputes which had developed with the foreign community.[14] In 1846, the Commission adopted Principles, ratified by the legislature.[15] The specifics for fulfilling the Principles were much debated until a formulation drafted by a Westerner, Justice William Lee, was accepted by the king and chiefs in Privy Council on December 18, 1847. This resulted in a division of land between the King, chiefs and land agents, and a final third to tenant farmers.[16] The "Great Mahele"—or division-began January 27, 1848, and ended March 7. On the last day of the Mahele the King set apart ⅔ for himself, successors and Chiefs. These 1,000,000 acres (400,000 ha) became the Crown and 1,500,000 acres (610,000 ha) of government lands.

The Kuleana Act of 1850

In 1850 the Kuleana Act was total defeudalization of landholdings which required division among the common people. Commoners could laid claim to the best land which they had been working as tenants on for Chiefs.[17][18] Section 5 of the Act though required the tenant to cultivate the land and would receive a houselot of not more than ¼ of an acre and to pay for a survey to the Land Commission. However, during this time period with the depopulation of Hawaiian natives the epidemics of 1848 and 1849[19] resulted in approximately 8,205 land patents being issued this way to native Hawaiians.[20][21]

To ameliorate any commoner not able to establish a land patent with a survey the Kuleana Act directed that the government could sell 1 to 50 acres (20 ha) for natives who did not qualify for a price of a minimum of 0.50 an acre.[22] The 50-year period after the Mahele brought the growth of large-scale plantation agriculture, especially sugar. By 1983 the Kingdom sold roughly 600,000 acres (240,000 ha) at an average price of 92 cents per acre to native Hawaiians.[23] However chiefs accustomed to feudal labor dues were unable to manage the plantations and large estates and were lost through debts and mortgage foreclosures after the collapse in the sandalwood market.[24]

Constitution of 1852

The Constitution of 1852 gave the vote to male taxpayers over the age of 20 who had resided in Hawai‘i for more than a year, provided that the legislature should meet every year, and made most of the acts of the king subject to approval of the privy council and kuhina nui.

Sugar reciprocity

Charles Reed Bishop, Minister of Foreign Affairs (Hawaii)

Sugar had been a major export from Hawaii since Captain James Cook's arrival in 1778.[25] The first permanent plantation in the islands was on Kauai in 1835. William Hooper leased 980 acres (400 ha) of land from Kamehameha III and began growing sugar cane. Within thirty years there would be plantations on four of the main islands. Sugar had completely altered Hawaii's economy.[26]

During the 1850's, the U.S. import tariff on sugar from Hawaii was much higher than the import tariffs Hawaiians were charging the U.S., and Kamehameha III sought reciprocity.[27] The monarch wished to lower the tariffs being paid out to the U.S. while still maintaining the Kingdom's sovereignty and make Hawaiian sugar competitive with other foreign markets. In 1854 Kamehameha III proposed a policy of reciprocity between the countries but the proposal died in the U.S. Senate.[28]

Kamehameha IV 1855-1863

Main article: Kamehameha IV
Emma, a British descendant and great grand niece of Hawaiʻi's first king, was Kamehameha IV's Queen Consort.

Kamehameha IV born Alexander Liholiho took the throne in 1855 till 1863. Kamehameha IV felt the Constitution of 1852 placed unacceptable limitations on his royal prerogatives and spent his reign fighting to have it amended.[29] Further he sought to reverse the ability of commoners to hold title to lands as he believed it made them their own chiefs.[30]

Kamehameha V 1863-1872

Main article: Kamehameha V

Kamehameha V, came to the throne in 1863 to 1872, refused to take an oath to maintain the constitution. Instead, a constitutional convention was convened. When the convention became deadlocked over the question of universal suffrage, which the king opposed, the convention was dissolved and the constitution abolished.[31] For a week, Hawai‘i was without a constitution, until Kamehameha V signed the Constitution of 1864, which reasserted the monarch’s powers[32] abolished the office of kuhina niu, combined the House of Nobles and Representatives into one body called the Legislative Assembly. Kamehameha V abolished universal male suffrage, instead the law required that a man was to own property to be allowed to vote and that voters born after 1840 had to be literate in either Hawaiian or English.[33][34]

Kamehameha V died at age 42 as the last ruling monarch of the House of Kamehameha. He did not name a successor.

Lunalilo 1873-1874

Main article: Lunalilo

William Lunalilo, Hawai‘i’s first elected king in 1873, made no changes in the Constitution of 1864 and was the shortest ruling monarch in Hawaii - only a year. He died of tuberculosis and alcohol at the age of 39.[33] Lunalilo left most of his estate for a home for poor, aged and infirm Hawaiians. Today that institution is called the Lunalilo Home of the Aged.[33]

Kalakaua 1874-1891

Main article: Kalākaua

Only 9 days after Lunalilo died, the Legislature, which was composed primarily of Hawaiians, convened a new ruler. When Kalakaua won by a vote of 39 to 6 over Queen Emma, her supporters stormed the courthouse and attacked Kalakaua's supporters killing a legislator.[35] Within minutes of the resulting chaos American and British troops on ships in Honolulu came ashore to halt the disorder.[35] David Kalakaua was then inaugurated to the throne in 1874 and was the last reigning king of the Kingdom of Hawaii til 1891.

In 1874 through 1875, Kalākaua traveled to the United States for a state visit to Washington DC to help gain support for a new treaty.[36][37] Congress agreed to the Reciprocity Treaty of 1875 for seven years in exchange for Ford Island.[38][39] After the treaty, sugar production expanded from 12,000 acres (4,900 ha) of farm land to 125,000 acres (51,000 ha) in 1891.[40] At the end of the seven-year reciprocity agreement, the United States showed little interest in renewal.[38]

Opium Bribery Case

Kalākaua's reign was characterized with accusations of widespread corruption,[41] bribes, abuses of power,[35] substantial debt, lawlessness and extravagance. The state funeral of Princess Likelike in 1887 was the most elaborate and costly public event during the reign of King Kalākaua with none of the spending was approved by the legislature pursuant to the law.[42] In 1886 the legislature provided a single vending license for the legal distribution of opium. During the year Chinese sugar planters bribed the King for an opium license. When one of them sued, his cabinet went to Kalākaua and he admitted receiving the $75,000, albeit claiming it was a gift. His cabinet convinced him to settle to avoid further publicity. On October 31, 1886 the cabinet was informed the king's estate was already $250,000 in debt. Kalākaua assigned his private estates and crown land revenues to trustees to pay the claims on a pro rata basis.[43]

Constitution of 1887 the "Bayonet Constitution"

During the spring of 1887 a group of Honolulu businessmen incensed with the King's veto power and actions of premier (Walter M. Gibson) in relation to the bribery scandal held a mass meeting on June 30, 1887. During the meeting reforms were presented and then submitted to the king. Including dismissing his cabinet, he would not violate the cabinets constitutional authority, and that Gibson be dismissed.[44] The meeting was attended by the volunteer militia the Honolulu rifles. With weapons present the implication was an armed revolt. The Hawaiian Army, the King's Guards stood down and the King agreed to their demands the next day. A new constitution was written on July 6, 1887.[45] Kalākaua was forced to dismiss his cabinet ministers and sign a new constitution which greatly lessened his power. It would become known as the "Bayonet Constitution" due to the threat of force.[46]

Lorrin Thurston, Minister of the Interior (Hawaii)

The Bayonet Constitution allowed the monarch to appoint cabinet ministers, but had stripped him of the power to dismiss them without approval from the Legislature.[45]:152 Eligibility to vote for the House of Nobles was also altered, stipulating that both candidates and voters were now required to own property valuing at least three thousand dollars, or have an annual income of no less than six hundred dollars a year.[47] This resulted in disenfranchising two thirds of the native Hawaiians as well as other ethnic groups who had previously held the right to vote but were no longer able to meet the new voting requirements.[48] This new constitution benefited the white, foreign plantation owners.[49] With the legislature now responsible for naturalizing citizens, Americans and Europeans could retain their home country citizenship and vote as citizens of the kingdom.[50] Along with voting privileges, Americans could now run for office and still retain their American citizenship, something not afforded in any other nation of the world[51] and even allowed Americans to vote without becoming naturalized.[52] Asian immigrants were completely shut out and were no longer able to acquire citizenship or vote at all.[53]

Wilcox Rebellion of 1888

ʻIolani Barracks, 2007

The Wilcox Rebellion of 1888 was a plot to overthrow King David Kalākaua, king of Hawaii, and replace him with his sister in a coup d'état in response to increased political tension between the legislature and the king after the 1887 constitution. Kalākaua's sister, Princess Liliʻuokalani and wife, Queen Kapiolani returned from Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee immediately after news reached them in Great Britain.[54]

Kalākaua's distant cousin, a native Hawaiian officer and veteran of the Italian military, Robert William Wilcox returned to Hawaii at about the same time as Liliʻuokalani[55] in October 1887 when the funding for his study program stopped when the new constitution was signed. Wilcox, Charles B. Wilson, Princess Liliʻuokalani, and Sam Nowlein plotted to overthrow King Kalākaua to replace him with his sister, Liliʻuokalani. They had 300 Hawaiian conspirators hidden in Iolani Barracks and an alliance with the Royal Guard, but the plot was accidentally discovered in January 1888, less than 48 hours before the revolt would have been initiated.[56] No one was prosecuted but Wilcox was exiled. So on February 11, 1888 Wilcox left Hawaii for San Francisco, intending to return to Italy with his wife.

Princess Liliʻuokalani was offered the throne several times by the Missionary Party who had forced the Bayonet Constitution on her brother, but she believed she would become a powerless figurehead like her brother and rejected the offers outright.[57]

King David Kalākaua

When Kalākaua died in 1891, his sister Liliʻuokalani ascended the throne. Queen Liliʻuokalani called her brother's reign "a golden age materially for Hawaii".[58]

Liliuokalani 1891-1893

Main article: Liliuokalani

In January 1891, Kalākaua traveled to San Francisco for his health, staying at the Palace Hotel. He died there on January 20.[59] His sister Liliʻuokalani assumed the throne in the middle of an economic crisis. The McKinley Act had crippled the Hawaiian sugar industry by removing the duties on sugar imports from other countries into the US, eliminating the previous Hawaiian advantage due to the Reciprocity Treaty of 1875.[60] Many Hawaii businesses and citizens felt pressure from the loss of revenue; in response Liliʻuokalani proposed a lottery system to raise money for her government. Also proposed was a controversial opium licensing bill.[61] Her ministers, and closest friends, were all opposed to this plan; they unsuccessfully tried to dissuade her from pursuing these initiatives, both of which came to be used against her in the brewing constitutional crisis.[62]

Liliʻuokalani's chief desire was to restore power to the monarch by abrogating the 1887 Bayonet Constitution and promulgating a new one, an idea that seems to have been broadly supported by the Hawaiian population.[63] The 1893 Constitution would have reduced suffrage by reducing some property requirements, and eliminated the voting privileges extended to European and American residents. It would have disfranchised many resident European and American businessmen who were not citizens of Hawaii. The Queen toured several of the islands on horseback, talking to the people about her ideas and receiving overwhelming support, including a lengthy petition in support of a new constitution. However, when the Queen informed her cabinet of her plans, they withheld their support due to an understanding of what her opponent's likely response to these plans would be.[64]

Though there were threats to Hawaii's sovereignty throughout the Kingdom's history, it was not until the signing of the Bayonet Constitution in 1887 that this threat began to be realized. The precipitating event[65] leading to the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii on January 17, 1893 was the attempt by Queen Liliʻuokalani to promulgate a new constitution that would have strengthened the power of the monarch relative to the legislature, where Euro-American business elites held disproportionate power. This political situation had resulted from the so-called 1887 Bayonet Constitution. The stated goals of the conspirators, who were non-native Hawaiian Kingdom subjects (five American nationals, one English national, and one German national)[66] were to depose the queen, overthrow the monarchy, and seek Hawaii's annexation to the United States.[67][68]

Overthrow

Queen Liliʻuokalani

The coup d'état itself was led by Thurston, who was the grandson of American missionaries[69] and derived his support primarily from the American and European business class residing in Hawaii and other supporters of the Reform Party of the Hawaiian Kingdom. Most of the leaders of the Committee of Safety that deposed the queen were American and European citizens who were also Kingdom subjects.[70][71][72] They included legislators, government officers, and a Supreme Court Justice of the Hawaiian Kingdom.[73]

On January 16, the Marshal of the Kingdom, Charles B. Wilson was tipped off by detectives to the imminent planned coup. Wilson requested warrants to arrest the 13 member council, of the Committee of Safety, and put the Kingdom under martial law. Because the members had strong political ties with United States Government Minister John L. Stevens, the requests were repeatedly denied by Attorney General Arthur P. Peterson and the Queen’s cabinet, fearing if approved, the arrests would escalate the situation. After a failed negotiation with Thurston,[74] Wilson began to collect his men for the confrontation. Wilson and Captain of the Royal Household Guard, Samuel Nowlein, had rallied a force of 496 men who were kept at hand to protect the Queen.[75]

The events began on January 17, 1893 when a policeman was shot and wounded while trying to stop a wagon carrying weapons to the Honolulu Rifles, the paramilitary wing of the Committee of Safety led by Lorrin Thurston. The Committee of Safety feared the shooting would bring government forces to rout out the conspirators and stop the coup before it could begin. The Committee of Safety initiated the overthrow by organizing the Honolulu Rifles made of about 1,500 armed local (non-native) men under their leadership, intending to depose Queen Liliʻuokalani. The Rifles garrisoned Ali'iolani Hale across the street from ʻIolani Palace and waited for the Queen’s response.

USS Boston
John L. Stevens, an American diplomat, conspired to overthrow the Kingdom of Hawaii

As these events were unfolding, the Committee of Safety expressed concern for the safety and property of American residents in Honolulu.[76]

The coup efforts were supported by United States Government Minister John L. Stevens with an invasion of U.S. Marines, who came ashore at the request of the conspirators.[77] The coup left the queen imprisoned at Iolani Palace under house arrest. It briefly became the Republic of Hawaii, before eventual annexation by the United States in 1898. Advised about supposed threats to non-combatant American lives and property[78] by the Committee of Safety, Stevens obliged their request and summoned a company of uniformed U.S. Marines from the USS Boston and two companies of U.S. sailors to land on the Kingdom and take up positions at the U.S. Legation, Consulate, and Arion Hall on the afternoon of January 16, 1893. 162 sailors and Marines aboard the USS Boston in Honolulu Harbor came ashore well-armed but under orders of neutrality. The sailors and Marines did not enter the Palace grounds or take over any buildings, and never fired a shot, but their presence served effectively in intimidating royalist defenders. Historian William Russ states, "the injunction to prevent fighting of any kind made it impossible for the monarchy to protect itself."[79]

Republic of Hawaii 1894-1898

Main article: Republic of Hawaii

The Republic of Hawaiʻi was the formal name of the government that controlled Hawaiʻi from July 4, 1894, when the Provisional Government of Hawaii ended, and August 12, 1898 when the Newlands Resolution of the United States Congress was acknowledged in Hawai`i, resulting in the annexation of Hawaii by the United States as a territory of the United States. (The Newlands Resolution had passed in the US Congress on July 7, 1898.) The Territory of Hawaii would be formally established until June 14, 1900.

The Kingdom of Hawaii was overthrown in 1893 by Citizens and residents favoring Democracy over a Monarchy model. The U.S. Military was present but only as observers, as they had an obligation to protect the hundreds of American lives and property in Honolulu at the time.[80] The Republic of Hawaii was led by men of European ancestry, like Sanford B. Dole and Lorrin A. Thurston, who were native-born subjects of the Hawaiian kingdom and speakers of the Hawaiian language, but had strong financial, political, and family ties to the United States. Dole was a former member of the Kingdom legislature from Koloa, Kauai, and Justice of the Kingdom's Supreme Court, and he appointed Thurston—who had served as Minister of Interior under King Kalākaua—to lead a lobbying effort in Washington, DC to secure Hawaii's annexation by the United States.

Annexation to the United States

Political cartoon of 1898

In March 1897, William McKinley, a Republican expansionist, succeeded Democrat Cleveland in the White House. He prepared a treaty of annexation but it needed a ⅔ majority in the Senate and enough Democrats were opposed to block it. A joint resolution was written by Republican Congressman Francis G. Newlands to annex Hawaii was passed; it needed only a majority support. The War with Spain had broken out and many leaders pointed to the urgent need for Pearl Harbor if the United States was to be a Pacific power and be able to protect the West Coast. In 1897 Japan sent warships to Hawaii to oppose annexation. Talk of invasion and annexation of Hawaii by Japan made the decision even more urgent.[81]

McKinley signed the Newlands Resolution which annexed Hawaii. On July 7, 1898 creating the Territory of Hawaii. On 22 February 1900 the Hawaiian Organic Act established a territorial government. In the opinion of annexation opponents, this was illegal for they believed the Queen was the only legitimate ruler; no one listened. McKinley appointed Dole as territorial governor. The territorial legislature convened for the first time on February 20, 1901. Hawaiians formed the Hawaiian Independent Party, under the leadership of Robert Wilcox, Hawaii's first congressional delegate.[82]

Plantation era

Sugarcane plantations in Hawaii expanded during the territorial period. Some of the companies diversified and came to dominate related industries including transportation, banking and real estate. Economic and political power was concentrated in what were known as the "Big Five" corporations.

Attack on Pearl Harbor

USS Arizona during the attack on Pearl Harbor

Pearl Harbor was attacked on 7 December 1941 by the Japanese navy, sinking the main American battleship fleet. The four American aircraft carriers were not in port and escaped damage. Hawaii was put under martial law until 1945. The large Japanese American population was not interred, but hundreds of pro-Japanese leaders were arrested. It was the main forward base for the Pacific War. The Japanese tried to invade in 1942 but were defeated at the Battle of Midway. Hundreds of thousands of American soldiers, sailors, Marines and airment came through on their way to the front lines.[83]

Democratic Party

In 1954, a nonviolent revolution of industry-wide strikes, protests and other civil disobedience transpired. In the territorial elections of 1954, the reign of the Hawaii Republican Party in the legislature came to an abrupt end, replaced by the Democratic Party of Hawaii. Democrats lobbied for statehood and gained the governorship from 1962 to 2002. The Revolution also unionized the labor force, hastening the decline of the plantations.

Statehood

All islands voted at least 93% in favor of statehood in 1959

President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed the Hawaii Admission Act on March 18, 1959. This Act allowed for Hawaiian statehood. After a popular referendum in which over 93% voted in favor of statehood, Hawaii was admitted as the 50th state on August 21, 1959.

Sovereignty movements

For many Native Hawaiians, the manner in which Hawaii became a US territory is a bitter part of its history. Hawaii Territory governors and judges were direct political appointees of the US president. Native Hawaiians created the Home Rule Party and seek greater self-government. Hawaii was subject to cultural and societal repression during the territorial period and the first decade of statehood. Along with other self movements worldwide the 1960s Hawaiian Renaissance led to the rebirth of Hawaiian language, culture and identity.

With the support of Hawaii Senators Daniel Inouye and Daniel Akaka, Congress passed a joint resolution called the "Apology Resolution" (US Public Law 103-150). It was signed by President Bill Clinton on November 23, 1993. This resolution apologized "to Native Hawaiians on behalf of the people of the United States for the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii on January 17, 1893... and the deprivation of the rights of Native Hawaiians to self-determination." The implications of this resolution have been extensively debated.[84][85]

Akaka proposed what is called the Akaka Bill to extend federal recognition to those of Native Hawaiian ancestry as a sovereign group similar to Native American tribes.[86]

See also

Notes

    References

    1. ↑ Jon J. Chinen (1958). The Great Mahele: Hawaii's Land Division of 1848. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0870221256.
    2. ↑ Jean Hobbs (1935). Hawaii - A Pageant of the Soil. Stanford University Press.
    3. ↑ M. Kelly, Changes in Land Tenure in Hawaii, 1778-1850, June, 1956
    4. ↑ Lind, A. (1938). An Island Community. pp. 94–99.
    5. ↑ Feathered Gods and Fishhooks: An Introduction to Hawaiian Archaeology and Prehistory by By Patrick Vinton Kirch, pg 306
    6. ↑ See R. Kuykendall The Hawaiian Kingdom 1778-1854, 119-122 (1938 Hawaiian Kingdom) (account of the adoption of the Law of 1825 and early law-making in Hawai'i).
    7. ↑ http://hooilina.org/collect/journal/index/assoc/HASH0166.dir/5.pdf
    8. ↑ "Kingdom of Hawaii Constitution of 1839". The Morgan Report. Retrieved 3 December 2010.
      "1839 Hawaiian Bill of Rights". Free Hawaii. Retrieved 3 December 2010.
    9. ↑ Hitch, Thomas Kemper; Kamins, Robert M (1993). Islands in Transition: The Past, Present, and Future of Hawaii's Economy. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 28–30. ISBN 978-0-8248-1498-4.
    10. ↑ Richard H. Kosaki (1978). "Constitutions and Constitutional Conventions of Hawaii". Hawaiian Journal of History 12 (Hawaii Historical Society). pp. 120–138.
    11. ↑ Act of Nov. 9, 1840, ch. 3, § 6, in TRANSLATION at 34 (THE FUNDAMENTAL LAW OF HAWAII 18 (L. Thurston ed. 1904) at 19)
    12. ↑ 1 Laws of Kamehameha III 101 (1840); Thurston, supra note 20, at 137; 2 Revised Laws of Hawaii, 1925, 2120, et seq. [hereinafter Revised Laws 1925).
    13. ↑ See 2 [1847] Hawaii Laws 84, in Revised Laws 1925 at 2127 (Thurston at 143).
    14. ↑ Act of Dec. 10, 1845, ch. 7, § 9 [1846] Hawaii Laws 109, in Revised Laws 1925 at 212 3 (Thurston at 139). But see 1 Hawaiian Kingdom, supra note 1, at 282-84 for discussion of the limited government experiment in 1845 of selling small lots with fee simple title in the Makawao district of Maui and the Manoa valley on Oahu.
    15. ↑ 2 [1847] Hawaii Laws 94, in Revised Laws 1925 at 2137 (Thurston at 154).
    16. ↑ Rules adopted by the Privy Council, Dec. 18, 1847, § 4, 4 PRIVY COUNCIL R OD (1847), quoted in Alexander, A Brief History of Land Titles in the Hawaiian Kingdom, in THRUM's Hawaiian Almanac and Annual for 1891 at 112.
    17. ↑ Feathered Gods and Fishhooks: An Introduction to Hawaiian Archaeology and Prehistory by By Patrick Vinton Kirch, pg 311
    18. ↑ Act of Dec. 21, 1849, § 6, [1850] Hawaii Laws 203, in Revised Laws 1925 at 2142.
    19. ↑ Hawai'i State Dept. of BudSC!t and Fmance (Hawai'i Institute for Management and Analysis in Government), Land and Water Resource Management in Hawaii 148 (1979), note 16, at 156.
    20. ↑ 1 R. KUYKENDALL, THE HAWAIIAN KINGDOM 1778-1854 (1938) at pg 294
    21. ↑ Marion Kelly, historian, Bishop Museum, Honolulu, Hawaii in Letter from Marion Kelley to Neil Levy, February 18, 1975.
    22. ↑ Act of July 11, 1851, [1851] Hawaii Laws 52-53
    23. ↑ R. Horowitz, L. Vargina, I. FINN, & J. CEASER, PUBLIC LAND POLICY IN HAWAII: AN Historical Analysis (Legislative Reference Bureau Report No. 5, 1965)
    24. ↑ Regarding early mortgage granted by Native Hawaiians, see, e.g., May v. Haalelea, 2 Hawaii 191 (1859).
    25. ↑ Deerr, Noel (1949). The History of Sugar, Volume 1. London: Chapman and Hall Ltd. OCLC 833266489.
    26. ↑ Robin Santos Doak (1 January 2003). Hawaii: The Aloha State. World Almanac Library. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-8368-5149-6.
    27. ↑ Pratt, Helen G. (1939). In Hawaii: A Hundred Years. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. p. 249. OCLC 12372595.
    28. ↑ The Psychologists of Prejudice and Discrimination. ABC-CLIO. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-275-98234-8.
    29. ↑ R. Kuykendallh.. Constitutions of the Hawaiilln Kingdom 21 (papers of the Hawaiian Historical Society, No. 21, 1940 at 27-36.
    30. ↑ Letter of Prince Liholiho to Kamehameha III
    31. ↑ R. Kuykendallh.. Constitutions of the Hawaiilln Kingdom 21 (papers of the Hawaiian Historical Society, No. 21, 1940
    32. ↑ R. Kuykendallh.. Constitutions of the Hawaiilln Kingdom 21 (papers of the Hawaiian Historical Society, No. 21, 1940 at 36-40
    33. 1 2 3 A History of Hawaii, By Linda K. Menton, Eileen Tamura, pg 15
    34. ↑ Pacific Gibraltar: U.S.-Japanese Rivalry over the Annexation of Hawai'i by By William Morgon, pg 145
    35. 1 2 3 A History of Hawaii, By Linda K. Menton, Eileen Tamura, pg 18
    36. ↑ Donald Dalton Johnson (1 January 1995). The United States in the Pacific: Private Interests and Public Policies, 1784-1899. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 105. ISBN 978-0-275-95055-2.
    37. ↑ Jon M. Van Dyke (2008). Who Owns the Crown Lands of Hawai_i?. University of Hawaii Press. p. 118. ISBN 978-0-8248-3211-7.
    38. 1 2 Pratt, Helen G. (1939). In Hawaii: A Hundred Years. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 260=261. OCLC 12372595.
    39. ↑ Curtis, Catherine (1966). Builders of Hawaii. Hawaii: The Kamehameha Schools Press. p. 218. ASIN B00285NRCI.
    40. ↑ Charles W. Calhoun (11 September 2006). The Gilded Age: Perspectives on the Origins of Modern America. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. pp. 316–. ISBN 978-0-7425-8168-5.
    41. ↑
      1. 4018 Report of Hawaii Kingdom legislature Select Committee on the London Loan: $15,000 of $200,000 loan embezzled
    42. ↑ Hawaiian National Bibliography, 1780-1900: 1881-1900 by By David W. Forbes pg 281 citing Hawaii Kingdom. Legislature. Finance Committee
    43. ↑ Hawaiian National Bibliography, 1780-1900: 1881-1900, By David W. Forbes, pg 290 citing Kuykendall, Vol. III, p 353
    44. ↑ Hawaiian National Bibliography, 1780-1900: 1881-1900 by By David W. Forbes pg 232
    45. 1 2 Jon M. Van Dyke (2008). Who Owns the Crown Lands of Hawai_i?. Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press. p. 123. ISBN 978-0-8248-3211-7.
    46. ↑ Mirza Ph.D, Rocky M. (September 2, 2010). American Invasions: Canada to Afghanistan, 1775 to 2010: Canada to Afghanistan, 1775 to 2010. Indiana: Trafford Publishing. p. 80. ISBN 978-1-4669-5688-9.
    47. ↑ Sarah Vowell (22 March 2011). Unfamiliar Fishes. Penguin Group US. p. 90. ISBN 978-1-101-48645-0.
    48. ↑ John H. Chambers (2009). Hawaii. Interlink Books. pp. 184–85. ISBN 978-1-56656-615-5.
    49. ↑ William Ming Liu; Derek Kenji Iwamoto; Mark H. Chae (19 January 2011). Culturally Responsive Counseling with Asian American Men. Routledge. p. 133. ISBN 978-1-135-96833-5.
    50. ↑ William Michael Morgan (2011). Pacific Gibraltar: U.S.-Japanese Rivalry Over the Annexation of Hawai'i, 1885-1898. Naval Institute Press. p. 57. ISBN 978-1-59114-529-5.
    51. ↑ James Bradley (24 November 2009). The Imperial Cruise: A Secret History of Empire and War. Little, Brown. p. 110. ISBN 978-0-316-03966-6.
    52. ↑ Noenoe K. Silva (7 September 2004). Aloha Betrayed: Native Hawaiian Resistance to American Colonialism. Duke University Press. p. 126. ISBN 0-8223-3349-X.
    53. ↑ Florencia Mallon (30 December 2011). Decolonizing Native Histories: Collaboration, Knowledge, and Language in the Americas. Duke University Press. p. 31. ISBN 0-8223-5152-8.
    54. ↑ Liliuokalani (1898). Hawaii's Story. Tothrop, Lee & Shepard Co. p. 174.
    55. ↑ Liliuokalani (1898). Hawaii's Story. Tothrop, Lee & Shepard Co. p. 195.
    56. ↑ Foreign Relations of the United States 1894: Affairs in Hawaii. Government Printing Office. 1895. p. 670.
    57. ↑ Liliuokalani (1898). Hawaii's Story. Tothrop, Lee & Shepard Co. p. 186.
    58. ↑ Liliʻuokalani (Queen of Hawaii) (July 25, 2007) [1898]. Hawaii's story by Hawaii's queen, Liliuokalani. Lee and Shepard, reprinted by Kessinger Publishing, LLC. p. 233. ISBN 978-0-548-22265-2.
    59. ↑ Richard Harned (11 February 2009). The Palace Hotel. Arcadia Publishing. p. 76. ISBN 978-1-4396-3655-8.
    60. ↑ Paul R. Spickard; Joanne L. Rondilla; Debbie Hippolite Wright (1 January 2002). Pacific Diaspora: Island Peoples in the United States and Across the Pacific. University of Hawaii Press. p. 316. ISBN 978-0-8248-2619-2.
    61. ↑ Eric Tyrone Lowery Love (2004). Race Over Empire: Racism and U.S. Imperialism, 1865-1900. Univ of North Carolina Press. pp. 107–. ISBN 978-0-8078-5565-2.
    62. ↑ United States. Department of State (1895). Foreign Relations of the United States. U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 496.
    63. ↑ Russ, The Hawaiian Revolution, p. 67: "She ... defended her act[ions] by showing that, out of a possible 9,500 native voters in 1892, 6,500 asked for a new Constitution."
    64. ↑ Daws, Shoal of Time, p271: The Queen's new cabinet "had been in office less than a week, and whatever they thought about the need for a new constitution... they knew enough about the temper of the queen's opponents to realize that they would endure the chance to challenge her, and no minister of the crown could look forward... to that confrontation."
    65. ↑ Kuykendall, Ralph (1967). The Hawaiian Kingdom, Volume 3. University of Hawaii Press. p. 582. ISBN 0-87022-433-6.
    66. ↑ The Blount Report, p588
    67. ↑ Kuykendall, Ralph (1967). The Hawaiian Kingdom, Volume 3. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 533 and 587–88. ISBN 0-87022-433-6. From Kuykendall, p. 587-588: "W.D. Alexander (History of Later Years of the Hawaiian Monarchy and the Revolution of 1893, p. 37) gives the following as the wording of Thurston's motion [to launch the coup]: 'That preliminary steps be taken at once to form and declare a Provisional Government with a view to annexation to the United States.' Thurston later wrote that his motion was 'substantially as follows: "I move that it is the sense of this meeting that the solution of the present situation is annexation to the United States."'(Memoirs, p. 250) Lt. Lucien Young (The Boston at Hawaii, p. 175) gives the following version of the motion: 'Resolved, That it is the sense of this committee that in view of the present unsatisfactory state of affairs, the proper course to pursue is to abolish the monarchy and apply for annexation to the United States.'"
    68. ↑ Russ, William Adam (1992). The Hawaiian Revolution (1893–94). Associated University Presses. p. 90. ISBN 0-945636-53-9.
    69. ↑ James L. Roark; Michael P. Johnson; Patricia Cline Cohen; Sarah Stage, Susan M. Hartmann (9 January 2012). The American Promise, Combined Volume: A History of the United States. Bedford/St. Martin's. p. 660. ISBN 978-0-312-66312-4. Cite uses deprecated parameter |coauthors= (help)
    70. ↑ Vernon M. Briggs (1 January 2003). Mass Immigration and the National Interest: Policy Directions for the New Century. M.E. Sharpe. p. 72. ISBN 978-0-7656-0934-2.
    71. ↑ Vernon M. Briggs (2001). Immigration and American Unionism. Cornell University Press. p. 58. ISBN 0-8014-8710-2.
    72. ↑ Tom Ginsburg; Rosalind Dixon (1 January 2011). Comparative Constitutional Law. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 181. ISBN 978-0-85793-121-4.
    73. ↑ Andrade, Jr., Ernest (1996). Unconquerable Rebel: Robert W. Wilcox and Hawaiian Politics, 1880–1903. University Press of Colorado. p. 130. ISBN 0-87081-417-6.
    74. ↑ Twombly, Alexander (1900). Hawaii and its people. Silver, Burdett and company. p. 333.
    75. ↑ Young, Lucien (1899). The Real Hawaii. Doubleday & McClure company. p. 252.
    76. ↑ The Morgan Report, p808-809, "At the request of many citizens, whose wives and families were helpless and in terror of an expected uprising of the mob, which would burn and destroy, a request was made and signed by all of the committee, addressed to Minister Stevens, that troops might be landed to protect houses and private property.
    77. ↑ Jack Utter (2001). American Indians: Answers to Today's Questions. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 414. ISBN 978-0-8061-3309-6.
    78. ↑ Kinzer, S. (2006) America's Century of Regime Change from Hawaii to Iraq. p. 30. [Minister Stevens] "certainly overstepped his authority when he brought troops ashore, especially since he knew that the 'general alarm and terror' of which the Committee of Safety had complained was a fiction."
    79. ↑ Russ, William Adam (1992). The Hawaiian Revolution (1893–94). Associated University Presses. p. 350. ISBN 0-945636-43-1.
    80. ↑ Associated Press (16 August 2009). "Hawaii's Marks 50th Anniversary of Statehood: A brief history of Hawaii, from Polynesian voyagers to an island-born president". ABC News.
    81. ↑ William Morgan (2011). Pacific Gibraltar: U.S.-Japanese Rivalry over the Annexation of Hawai'i, 1885-1898. Naval Institute Press. pp. 213–16.
    82. ↑ William Adam Russ, The Hawaiian Republic (1894-98): and its struggle to win annexation (Susquehanna U Press, 1992).
    83. ↑ DeSoto Brown, and Anne Ellett, Hawaii goes to war: life in Hawaii from Pearl Harbor to peace (1989).
    84. ↑ Carolyn Lucas (December 30, 2004). "Law expert Francis Boyle urges natives to take back Hawaii". West Hawaii Today. Archived from the original on 2005-01-02. Retrieved 2015-06-04.
    85. ↑ Fein, Bruce (June 6, 2005). "Hawaii Divided Against Itself Cannot Stand" (PDF). Angelfire on Lycos. Waltham, MA, USA: Lycos. Archived from the original on February 5, 2007. Retrieved September 4, 2012. External link in |work= (help)
    86. ↑ "Aloha, Apartheid: A court strikes down a race-based policy in Hawaii, while Congress considers enshrining one". Wall Street Journal. August 8, 2005.

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