Ezhava

The Ezhavas are a community with origins in the region of India presently known as Kerala. They are also known as Ilhava, Irava, Izhava and Erava in the south of the region; as Chovas, Chokons and Chogons in Central Travancore; and as Thiyyas, Tiyyas and Theeyas in the Malabar region.[1][2][3] Some are also known as Thandan, which has caused administrative difficulties due to the presence of a distinct caste of Thandan in the same region.[4][5] The Malabar Thiyya group have claimed a higher ranking in the Hindu caste system than do the others, although from the perspective of the colonial and subsequent administrations they were treated as being of similar rank.[1][6]

As well as being agricultural laborers, small cultivators, toddy tappers and liquor businessmen, some Ezhavas were also involved in weaving and some practised ayurveda. Ezhava dynasties such as the Izhathu Mannanars also existed in Kerala.[7] The Chekavar, a warrior section within the community, were part of the militias of local chieftains and kings. There were also renowned kalaripayattu experts among Chekavars.[8][9]

Legend

According to legend and some Malayalam folk songs, the Ezhavas were the progeny of four bachelors that the king of Ceylon sent to Kerala at the request of the Chera king Bhaskara Ravi Varma, in the 1st century CE. These men were sent, ostensibly, to set up coconut farming in Kerala. Another version of the story says that the Sri Lankan king sent eight martial families to Kerala at the request of a Chera king to quell a civil war that had erupted in Kerala against him.[10]

Dispute between Thiyya and Ezhava

Some in the Thiyya community have objected to being treated as Ezhava by the government of Kerala. They have campaigned for the right to record themselves as Thiyya rather than as Ezhava when applying for official posts and other jobs allocated under India's system of positive discrimination. They claim that the stance of the government is contrary to a principle established by the Supreme Court of India relating to a dispute involving communities who were neither Ezhava nor Thiyya.[11][12] The Thiyya Mahasabha has also opposed the SNDP's use of the Thiyya name at an event.[13]

In February 2013, the recently formed Thiyya Mahasabha objected to the SNDP treating Ezhavas and Thiyyas as one group, rather than recognising the Thiyyas in Malabar as being distinct. The SNDP was at that time attempting to increase its relatively weak influence in northern Kerala, where the politics of identity play a lesser role than those of class and the Communist Party of India (Marxist) has historically been a significant organisation.[14][15]

Past occupations

The social anthropologists Filippo and Caroline Osella say that the Ezhavas "... consisted in the mid-nineteenth century of a small landowning and titled elite and a large mass of landless and small tenants who were largely illiterate, considered untouchable, and who eked out a living by manual labour and petty trade."[16][lower-alpha 1] A. Aiyappan, another social anthropologist and himself a member of the caste,[16] noted the mythical belief that the Ezhava brought coconut palms to Kerala when they moved from Sri Lanka.[18] Their traditional occupation, or avakasam, was tending to and tapping the sap of such palms. This activity is sometimes erroneously referred to as toddy tapping, toddy being a liquor manufactured from the sap. Arrack was another liquor produced from the palms, as was jaggery (an unrefined sugar). In reality, most Ezhavas were agricultural labourers and small-time cultivators, with a substantial number diverging into the production of coir products, such as coconut mats for flooring, from towards the end of the 19th-century.[1] The coastal town of Alleppey became the centre of such manufacture and was mostly controlled by Ezhavas, although the lucrative export markets were accessible only through European traders, who monopolised the required equipment. A boom in trade for these manufactured goods after World War I led to a unique situation in twentieth-century Kerala whereby there was a shortage of labour, which attracted still more Ezhavas to the industry from outlying rural areas. The Great Depression impacted in particular on the export trade, causing a reduction in price and in wages even though production increased, with the consequence that during the 1930s many Ezhava families found themselves to be in dire financial circumstances.[18][19][20]

Some Ezhavas were involved in weaving and ship making.[21]

Martial traditions

Many were employed as guards or sentinels in the palaces of Cochin and Travancore.[22] Syrian Christians of Kerala, who were privileged in the pre-colonial period to have their own private armies, recruited Ezhava members due in part to this tradition.[23]

Chekavar

A subgroup of the Thiyyas considered themselves to be warriors and became known as the Chekavars. The Vadakkan Pattukal ballads describe Chekavars as forming the militia of local chieftains and kings but the title was also given to experts of Kalari Payattu.[24]

Medicine and traditional toxicology

Some Ezhavas had an extensive knowledge of the medicinal value of plants, passed to them by their ancestors. Known as Vaidyars, these people acted as physicians. Itti Achuden was probably the best known Ezhava physician who directly influenced the classification of Hortus Malabaricus in the 17th century. Itti Achuden's texts were written in the Kolezhuthu script that Ezhava castes used, for they were prevented from learning the more sanskritized Aryazuthu script which was the preserve of the upper-castes.[25]

Some Ezhavas practiced ayurvedic medicine.[26][27][28]

Culture

Ezhava/Channar Musicians from the 19th century: Performing the traditional "Villadichaampattu"

Aivar kali

Literally, Aivarkali means the play of the five sets. This was a ritualistic art form performed in almost all important temples of Kerala. Today it is found in central Kerala. This is also known as Pandavarkali, which means the play of the Pandavas, (the five heroes of the Mahabharatha), and is performed by Asari, Moosari, Karuvan, Thattan and Kallasari communities. This ritualistic dance is performed beneath a decorated pandal with a nilavilakku at its centre. The five or more performers with their leader called Kaliachan enter the performance area after a ritualistic bath, with sandalwood paste over their foreheads, dressed in white dhoti, and with a towel wrapped around their heads.[29]

Arjuna Nrtam (Mayilppili Tukkam)

Arjuna Nrtam ("the dance of Arjuna") or Mayilppili Tukkam is a ritual art performed by men of Ezhava community and is prevalent in the Bhagavathy temples of south Kerala, mainly in Kollam, Alappuzha and Kottayam districts. Arjuna nritham is also called "Mayilpeeli Thookkam" as the costume includes a characteristic garment made of mayilppeeli (peacock feathers). This garment is worn around the waist in a similar fashion as the "uduthukettu" of Kathakali. The various dance movements are closely similar to Kalarippayattu techniques. The performers have their faces painted green and wear distinctive headgears. The all night performance of the dance form is usually presented solo or in pairs.[29]

Makachuttu

Makachuttu art is popular among Ezhavas in Thiruvananthapuram and Chirayinkizhu taluks and in Kilimanoor, Pazhayakunnummal and Thattathumala regions. In this, a group of eight performers, two each, twin around each other like serpents and rise up, battling with sticks. The techniques are repeated several times. Sandalwood paste on the forehead, a red towel round the head, red silk around the waist and bells round the ankles form the costume. This is a combination of snake worship and Kalarippayattu.[29][30]

Poorakkali

Poorakkali is a folk dance prevalent among the Ezhavas of Malabar, usually performed in Bhagavathy temples as a ritual offering during the month of Meenam (March–April). Poorakkali requires specially trained and highly experienced dancers, trained in Kalaripayattu, a system of physical exercise formerly in vogue in Kerala. Standing round a traditional lamp, the performers dance in eighteen different stages and rhythms, each phase called a niram.[29]

Teyyam (Teyyattam) or Kaliyattam

In northern Kerala, Teyyam is a popular ritual dance. This particular dance form is also known as Kaliyattam. The main deities of Ezhavas include Vayanattu Kulavan, Kativannur Viran, Pumarutan and Muttappan.[29][30]

Customs

Ezhavas adopted different patterns of behavior in family system across Kerala. Those living in southern Travancore tended to meld the different practices that existed in the other parts of Kerala. The family arrangements of northern Malabar were matrilineal with patrilocal property arrangements, whereas in northern Travancore they were matrilineal but usually matrilocal in their arrangements for property. Southern Malabar saw a patrilineal system but partible property.[1]

These arrangements were reformed by legislation, for Malabar in 1925 and for Travancore in 1933. The process of reform was more easily achieved for the Ezhavas than it was for the Nairs, another Hindu caste in Kerala who adopted matrilineal arrangements; the situation for the Nairs was complicated by a traditional matrilocal form of living called taravadu and by their usually much higher degree of property ownership.[1]

Spiritual and social movements

Some Thiyyas converted to Islam from around the 9th century, due to the influence of Arab traders. These people, and other Muslim converts in the region, are now known as Mappillas.[31] A sizeable part of the Ezhava community, especially in central Travancore and in the High Ranges, embraced Christianity during the British rule, due to caste-based discrimination. In Kannur, Protestant missions started working in the first half of the 19th century, notably the Basel German Evangelical Mission. Most of their converts were from the Thiyya community.[32] The Congregationalist London Missionary Society and the Anglican Church Mission Society were also prominent in the movement for religious conversion, having established presences in the Travancore region in the early nineteenth century.[33]

The lowly status of the Ezhava meant that, as Thomas Nossiter has commented, they had "little to lose and much to gain by the economic and social changes of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries". They sought the right to be treated as worthy of an English education and for jobs in government administration to be open to them.[1] An early Ezhava campaigner and their "political father", according to Ritty Lukose, was Padmanabhan Palpu.[34] In 1896, he organised a petition of 13,176 signatories that was submitted to the Maharajah of the princely state of Travancore, asking for government recognition of the Ezhavas' right to work in public administration and to have access to formal education.[35][36] Around this time, nearly 93 per cent of the caste members were illiterate.[37] The upper caste Hindus of the state prevailed upon the Maharajah not to concede the request. The outcome not looking to be promising, the Ezhava leadership threatened that they would convert from Hinduism en masse, rather than stay as helots of Hindu society. C. P. Ramaswamy Iyer, realizing the imminent danger, prompted the Maharajah to issue the Temple Entry Proclamation, which abolished the ban on lower-caste people from entering Hindu temples in the state of Travancore. Steven Wilkinson says that Proclamation was passed because the government was "frightened" by the Ezhava threat of conversion to Christianity.[38]

Narayana Guru

Eventually, in 1903, a small group of Ezhavas, led by Palpu, established Sree Narayana Dharma Paripalan Yogam (SNDP), the first caste association in the region. This was named after Narayana Guru, who had established an ashram from where he preached his message of "one caste, one religion, one god" and a Sanskritised version of the Victorian concept of self-help. His influence locally has been compared to that of Swami Vivekananda.[39] One of the initial aims of the SNDP was to campaign for the removal of the restrictions on school entry but even after those legal barriers to education were removed, it was uncommon in practice for Ezhavas to be admitted to government schools. Thus, the campaign shifted to providing schools operated by the community itself.[37] The organisation, attracted support in Travancore but similar bodies in Cochin were less successful. In Malabar, which unlike Cochin and Travancore was under direct British control,[40] the Thiyyas showed little interest in such bodies because they did not suffer the educational and employment discrimination found elsewhere, nor indeed were the disadvantages that they did experience strictly a consequence of caste alone.[39]

The Ezhavas were not immune to being manipulated by other people for political purposes. The Vaikom Satyagraha of 1924–1925 was a failed attempt to use the issue of avarna access to roads around temples in order to revive the fortunes of Congress, orchestrated by T. K. Madhavan, a revolutionary and civil rights activist,[41] and with a famous temple at Vaikom as the focal point. Although it failed in its stated aim of achieving access, the satyagraha (movement) did succeed in voicing a "radical rhetoric", according to Nossiter.[39] During this movement, a few Akalis—an order of armed Sikhs—came to Vaikom in support of the demonstrators. After the eventual passing of the Temple Entry Proclamation, some of the Akalis remained. They attracted some Ezhava youth to the concepts of the Sikhism, resulting in Ezhava conversions to Sikhism.[42]

The success of the SNDP in improving the lot of Ezhavas has been questioned. Membership had reached 50,000 by 1928 and 60,000 by 1974, but Nossiter notes that, "From the Vaikom satyagraha onwards the SNDP had stirred the ordinary Ezhava without materially improving his position." The division in the 1920s of 60,000 acres of properties previously held by substantial landowners saw the majority of Ezhava beneficiaries receive less than 1 acre each, although 2% of them took at least 40% of the available land. There was subsequently a radicalization and much political infighting within the leadership as a consequence of the effects of the Great Depression on the coir industry but the general notion of self-help was not easy to achieve in a primarily agricultural environment; the Victorian concept presumed an industrialised economy. The organisation lost members to various other groups, including the communist movement, and it was not until the 1950s that it reinvented itself as a pressure group and provider of educational opportunities along the lines of the Nair Service Society (NSS), Just as the NSS briefly formed the National Democratic Party in the 1970s in an attempt directly to enter the political arena, so too in 1972 the SNDP formed the Social Revolutionary Party.[39]

Position in society

Historical Position in Society

The Ezhava community, up until the turn of the century were an oppressed people; they were not to be touched or seen by upper-caste Hindus.Ezhava men and women were forced to go bare-chested so that upper-caste passers by could quickly recognize them, avoid looking at them, and avoid being spiritually polluted.[43] Although Ezhavas performed the works associated Sudra varna, they were considered as avarna (untouchable) by the Nambudiri Brahmins who formed the Hindu clergy and ritual ruling elite in late medieval Kerala.[1] Kathleen Gough says that the Thiyyas of Central Travancore were historically the highest-ranking of the "higher polluting castes", a group whose other constituents included Kanisans and various artisanal castes, and who were all superior in status to the "lower polluting castes", such as the Pulayars and Paraiyars. The Nairs and, where applicable, the Mapillas ranked socially and ritually higher than the polluting castes.[31][lower-alpha 2]

Modern Position in Society

From their study based principally around one village and published in 2000, the Osellas noted that the movements of the late-nineteenth and twentieth century brought about a considerable change for the Ezhavas, with access to jobs, education and the right to vote all assisting in creating an identity based on more on class than caste, although the stigmatic label of avarna remained despite gaining the right of access to temples.[44] Despite the persecution faced before the early 20th century, the Ezhavas climbed the caste laddder to 'backward' status, and have prospered economically.[43]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Gough describes Thiyya subtenants in Central Travancore, who worked land held by the Nair caste. One-third of the net produce from these lands was retained by the subtenants and the remainder was the property of the Nair tenant.[17]
  2. ↑ Kathleen Gough says of the Mappillas that they "... lived mainly in the ports and at inland trading posts on the banks of rivers. They were partly outside the village ranking system ... and were theoretically outside the Hindu religious hierarchy. Nevertheless Muslims were in some contexts accorded a rank ritually and socially between that of the Nayars and Tiyyars."[31]

Citations

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Nossiter (1982) p. 30
  2. ↑ Mandelbaum, David Goodman (1970). Society in India: Continuity and change. University of California Press. p. 502. ISBN 9780520016231. Another strong caste association, but one formed at a different social level and cemented by religious appeal, is that of the Iravas of Kerala, who are also known as Ezhavas or Tiyyas and make up more than 40 per cent of Kerala Hindus
  3. ↑ Gough, E. Kathleen (1961). "Tiyyar: North Kerala". In Schneider, David Murray; Gough, E. Kathleen. Matrilineal Kinship. University of California Press. p. 405. ISBN 978-0-520-02529-5. Throughout Kerala the Tiyyars (called Iravas in parts of Cochin and Travancore) ...
  4. ↑ Kusuman, K. K. "Ezhavas: Their many dimensions". Newindpress.com. Archived from the original on 2007-09-29.
  5. ↑ "Standing Committee on Social Justice and Empowerment (2006-2007)" (PDF). p. 13.
  6. ↑ Kodoth, Praveena (May 2001). "Courting Legitimacy or Delegitimizing Custom? Sexuality, Sambandham and Marriage Reform in Late Nineteenth-Century Malabar". Modern Asian Studies 35 (2): 350. doi:10.1017/s0026749x01002037. JSTOR 313121. (subscription required (help)).
  7. ↑ Pullapilly (1976) pp. 31–32
  8. ↑ Rao, M. S. A. (1979). Social Movements and Social Transformation. Macmillan. p. 23.
  9. ↑ Randhawa, Mohinder Singh; Nath, Prem (1961). Farmers of India. Indian Council of Agricultural Research. p. 359.
  10. ↑ E. M. S. Namppothirppadu, Keralam Malayalikalude Mathrubhumi Desbhimany publications, Volume 1, 1947 page 27
  11. ↑ Ramakrishnan, Kalathil (23 January 2012). "Thiyyas to move SC against Government order". IBN. Retrieved 9 March 2013.
  12. ↑ "Plea to lower minimum qualification for jobs". The Hindu. 23 May 2012. Retrieved 28 March 2013.
  13. ↑ "Thiyya forum lashes out at SNDP". The Hindu. 27 January 2013. Retrieved 9 March 2013.
  14. ↑ "Ezhava-Thiyya convention in Kozhikode". The Hindu. 1 February 2013. Retrieved 28 March 2013.
  15. ↑ "SNDP out to make a dent in CPM citadels in Malabar". The New Indian Express. 1 February 2013. Retrieved 28 March 2013.
  16. 1 2 Osella, Filippo; Osella, Caroline (2000). Social Mobility In Kerala: Modernity and Identity in Conflict. Pluto Press. p. 8. ISBN 978-0-7453-1693-2.
  17. ↑ Gough, E. Kathleen (1961). "Nayars: Central Kerala". In Schneider, David Murray; Gough, E. Kathleen. Matrilineal Kinship. University of California Press. p. 315. ISBN 978-0-520-02529-5. Tiyyars (called Iravas in Cochin)
  18. 1 2 Osella, Filippo; Osella, Caroline (2000). Social Mobility In Kerala: Modernity and Identity in Conflict. Pluto Press. pp. 50–51. ISBN 978-0-7453-1693-2.
  19. ↑ Mathew, George (1989). Communal Road To A Secular Kerala. Concept Publishing Company. pp. 137–138. ISBN 978-81-7022-282-8.
  20. ↑ Jeffrey, Robin (21 July 1984). "'Destroy Capitalism!': Growing Solidarity of Alleppey's Coir Workers, 1930–40". Economic and Political Weekly (Economic and Political Weekly) 19 (29): 1159. JSTOR 4373437. (subscription required)
  21. ↑ Lemercinier, Geneviève (1984). Religion and ideology in Kerala. D.K. Agencies. p. 246. Retrieved 2011-06-21.
  22. ↑ The Ethnographical Survey of the Cochin State. L. Krishna Anantha Krishna Iyer (Cochin Government Press). 1907. ISBN 978-0-19-517706-0. Retrieved 2008-12-25.
  23. ↑ Joseph, George Gheverghese (2003). On life and times of George Joseph, 1887–1938, a Syrian Christian nationalist from Kerala. Orient Longman. p. 20. ISBN 978-81-250-2495-8. Retrieved 2007-12-09.
  24. ↑ Pillai, Elamkulam P. N. Kunjan (1970). Studies in Kerala History. Kottayam: National Book Stall. pp. 111, 151–154.
  25. ↑ Grove, Richard (February 1996). "Indigenous Knowledge and the Significance of South-West India for Portuguese and Dutch Constructions of Tropical Nature". Modern Asian Studies 30 (1): 121–143. doi:10.1017/s0026749x00014104. JSTOR 312903.(subscription required)
  26. ↑ Alan Bicker, RF Ellen Peter Parkes (2000). Indigenous environmental knowledge and its transformations. Routledge. p. 9. Retrieved 2011-06-15.
  27. ↑ Gadgil, Madhav (2005). Ecological Journeys. Orient Blackswan. p. 82. Retrieved 2011-06-15.
  28. ↑ Singh, Abhay Kumar (2006). Modern World System and Indian Proto-Industrialization. Northern book center. p. 312. Retrieved 2011-06-15.
  29. 1 2 3 4 5 Bernier, Ronald M. (1982). Temple Arts of Kerala: A South Indian Tradition. Asia Book Corporation of America. ISBN 978-0-940500-79-2.
  30. 1 2 Chaitanya, Krishna (1987). Arts of India. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications. ISBN 978-81-7017-209-3.
  31. 1 2 3 Gough, E. Kathleen (1961). "Nayars: Central Kerala". In Schneider, David Murray; Gough, E. Kathleen. Matrilineal Kinship. University of California Press. pp. 312–313. ISBN 978-0-520-02529-5.
  32. ↑ Kareem, C.K (1976). Kerala District Gazetteers: Palghat. printed by the Superintendent of Govt. Presses. p. 188. Retrieved 2011-06-24.
  33. ↑ Kooiman, Dick (1996). "Who is to benefit from missionary education? Travancore in the 1930s". In Bickers, Robert A.; Seton, Rosemary E. Missionary Encounters: Sources & Issues. Routledge. p. 158. ISBN 9780700703708.
  34. ↑ Lukose, Ritty A. (2010). "Recasting the Secular: Religion and Education in Kerala, India". In Mines, Diane P.; Lamb, Sarah. Everyday Life in South Asia (2nd ed.). Indiana University Press. p. 209. ISBN 9780253354730.
  35. ↑ Wilson, Caroline (2011). "The social transformation of the medical profession in urban Kerala : Doctors, social mobility and the middle classes". In Donner, Henrike. Being Middle-class in India: A Way of Life. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. pp. 193–194. ISBN 978-0-415-67167-5.
  36. ↑ Kumar, Udaya (2009). "Subjects of New Lives". In Ray, Bharati. Different Types of History. Pearson Education India. p. 329. ISBN 978-81-317-1818-6.
  37. 1 2 Padmanabhan, Roshni (2010). "Learning to Learn". In Raman, K. Ravi. Development, Democracy and the State: Critiquing the Kerala Model of Development. Routledge. p. 106. ISBN 978-1-13515-006-8.
  38. ↑ Wilkinson, Steven I. (2006) [2004]. Votes and Violence: Electoral Competition and Ethnic Riots in India (Reprinted ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 179. ISBN 978-0-521-53605-9.
  39. 1 2 3 4 Nossiter (1982) pp. 30–32
  40. ↑ Gough, E. Kathleen (1961). "Nayars: Central Kerala". In Schneider, David Murray; Gough, E. Kathleen. Matrilineal Kinship. University of California Press. p. 304. ISBN 978-0-520-02529-5.
  41. ↑ Pullapilly (1976) p. 38
  42. ↑ Kusuman, K.K (1976). The abstention movement. Kerala Historical Society. p. 19. Retrieved 2011-06-15.
  43. 1 2 https://books.google.com/books?id=ZfnWCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1158&dq=Ezhava+caste&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwikuYmuwq_KAhXDPT4KHTi5DOM4ChDoAQhDMAc#v=onepage&q=Ezhava%20caste&f=false
  44. ↑ Osella, Filippo; Osella, Caroline (2000). Social Mobility In Kerala: Modernity and Identity in Conflict. Pluto Press. pp. 16, 29. ISBN 978-0-7453-1693-2.

Bibliography

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