List of submarine topographical features

Depiction of the abyssal zone in relation to other major oceanic zones.

List of submarine topographical features, oceanic landforms and topographic elements.

Abyssal plain

An abyssal plain is an underwater plain on the deep ocean floor, usually found at depths between 3,000 meters (9,800 ft) and 6,000 meters (20,000 ft). Lying generally between the foot of a continental rise and a mid-ocean ridge, abyssal plains are among the flattest, smoothest and least explored regions on Earth.[1] Abyssal plains are key geologic elements of oceanic basins (the other elements being an elevated mid-ocean ridge and flanking abyssal hills). In addition to these elements, active oceanic basins (those that are associated with a moving plate tectonic boundary) also typically include an oceanic trench and a subduction zone. Abyssal plains cover more than 33% of the ocean floor (about 23% of Earth’s surface),[2] but they are poorly preserved in the sedimentary record because they tend to be consumed by the subduction process.[1][3][4]

The abyssal plain is formed when the lower oceanic crust is melted and forced upwards by the asthenosphere layer of the upper mantle. As this basaltic material reaches the surface at mid-ocean ridges, it forms new oceanic crust. Abyssal plains result from the blanketing of an originally uneven surface of oceanic crust by fine-grained sediments, mainly clay and silt. Much of this sediment is deposited from turbidity currents that have been channeled from the continental margins along submarine canyons down into deeper water. The remainder of the sediment is composed chiefly of pelagic sediments.

Use of a continuously recording fathometer enabled Tolstoy & Ewing in the summer of 1947 to identify and describe the first abyssal plain.[1][5] This plain, located to the south of Newfoundland, is now known as the Sohm Abyssal Plain.[5] Following this discovery many other examples were found in all the oceans.[6][7][8][9][10]

List of abyssal plains and oceanic basins

Following is a list of named abyssal plains and oceanic basins:[1][11][12]

Name Alternate name Ocean Coordinates [11]
Adriatic Abyssal Plain (Adriatic Basin) Mediterranean Sea 43°0′N 15°0′E / 43.000°N 15.000°E / 43.000; 15.000
Agulhas Bank[13] (Agulhas Basin) South Atlantic Ocean 35°30′S 21°00′E / 35.500°S 21.000°E / -35.500; 21.000
Alaska Plain (Alaskan Abyssal Plain, Alaskan Plain) North Pacific Ocean 55°0′N 143°0′W / 55.000°N 143.000°W / 55.000; -143.000
Alborán Plain (Alboran Abyssal Plain) Alboran Sea (Mediterranean Sea) 35°55′N 3°50′W / 35.917°N 3.833°W / 35.917; -3.833
Aleutian Basin (Aleutskaya Kotlovina, Bering Abyssal Plain, Bering Basin, Bering Sea Basin) North Pacific Ocean 57°0′N 177°0′E / 57.000°N 177.000°E / 57.000; 177.000
Amerasian Basin (Central Polar Basin; consists of the Canada Basin and the Makarov Basin)
Amundsen Basin (Amundsen Basin) Arctic Ocean 89°0′N 80°0′E / 89.000°N 80.000°E / 89.000; 80.000
Amundsen Plain (Amundsen Abyssal Plain) Southern Ocean 65°0′S 125°0′W / 65.000°S 125.000°W / -65.000; -125.000
Angola Plain[14][15][16][17] (Angola Abyssal Plain, Angola Basin) South Atlantic Ocean 15°0′S 2°0′E / 15.000°S 2.000°E / -15.000; 2.000
Argentine Abyssal Plain (Argentine Plain, Argentine Basin) South Atlantic Ocean 47°30′S 50°0′W / 47.500°S 50.000°W / -47.500; -50.000
Balearic Abyssal Plain Mediterranean Sea 40°00′N 01°30′E / 40.000°N 1.500°E / 40.000; 1.500
Barracuda Plain (Barracuda Abyssal Plain) North Atlantic Ocean 17°0′N 56°30′W / 17.000°N 56.500°W / 17.000; -56.500
Bauer Basin
Bellingshausen Plain (Bellingshausen Abyssal Plain) Southern Ocean 64°0′S 90°0′W / 64.000°S 90.000°W / -64.000; -90.000
Biscay Plain[18] (Biscay Abyssal Plain) North Atlantic Ocean 45°0′N 7°15′W / 45.000°N 7.250°W / 45.000; -7.250
Blake Basin (Blake Abyssal Plain) North Atlantic Ocean 29°30′N 76°4′W / 29.500°N 76.067°W / 29.500; -76.067
Boreas Plain (Boreas Abyssal Plain) Arctic Ocean 77°0′N 1°0′E / 77.000°N 1.000°E / 77.000; 1.000
Burdwood Abyssal Plain South Atlantic Ocean
Canada Plain[19] (Canada Abyssal Plain, Canada Basin, Canada Deep, Canadian Plain, Kanadskaya Abissal'naya Ravnina Kanadskaya). One of two sub-basins of the Amerasian Basin. Arctic Ocean 80°0′N 140°0′W / 80.000°N 140.000°W / 80.000; -140.000
Canary Basin
Cape Plain[14] (Cape Abyssal Plain, Cape Basin) South Atlantic Ocean 34°45′S 6°0′E / 34.750°S 6.000°E / -34.750; 6.000
Cape Verde Plain[20] (Cape Verde Abyssal Plain) North Atlantic Ocean 23°0′N 26°0′W / 23.000°N 26.000°W / 23.000; -26.000
Cascadia Plain (Cascadia Abyssal Plain, Cascadia Basin, Bassin Cascadia, Great Trough) North Pacific Ocean 47°0′N 127°30′W / 47.000°N 127.500°W / 47.000; -127.500
Ceará Plain (Brazil Basin, Ceara Abyssal Plain) North Atlantic Ocean 0°0′N 36°30′W / 0.000°N 36.500°W / 0.000; -36.500
Central Pacific Basin
Ceylon Plain (Ceylon Abyssal Plain) Indian Ocean 4°0′S 82°0′E / 4.000°S 82.000°E / -4.000; 82.000
Chile Basin
Chukchi Plain[19] (Chukchi Abyssal Plain) Arctic Ocean 77°0′N 172°0′W / 77.000°N 172.000°W / 77.000; -172.000
Cocos Abyssal Plain (Cocos Basin) Indian Ocean
Colombian Plain (Colombia Abyssal Plain, Colombian Abyssal Plain) Caribbean Sea (Atlantic Ocean) 13°0′N 76°0′W / 13.000°N 76.000°W / 13.000; -76.000
Comoro Plain (Comores Abyssal Plain) Mozambique Channel (Indian Ocean) 13°45′S 44°30′E / 13.750°S 44.500°E / -13.750; 44.500
Cuvier Plain (Cuvier Abyssal Plain) Indian Ocean 22°0′S 111°0′E / 22.000°S 111.000°E / -22.000; 111.000
Demerara Plain (Demerara Abyssal Plain) North Atlantic Ocean 10°0′N 48°0′W / 10.000°N 48.000°W / 10.000; -48.000
Dumshaf Plain (Dumshaf Abyssal Plain) Arctic Ocean 68°0′N 5°0′E / 68.000°N 5.000°E / 68.000; 5.000
Enderby Plain[21][22] (Enderby Abyssal Plain, East Abyssal Plain) Southern Ocean 60°0′S 40°0′E / 60.000°S 40.000°E / -60.000; 40.000
Eratosthenes Abyssal Plain[23][24] (Eratosthenes Seamount) Mediterranean Sea 33°40′N 32°40′E / 33.667°N 32.667°E / 33.667; 32.667
Eurasian Basin (Norway Abyssal Plain, Norwegian Basin; consists of the Amundsen Basin and the Nansen Basin) Arctic Ocean 80°N 90°E / 80°N 90°E / 80; 90
Euxine Abyssal Plain[25][26][27] Black Sea
Fernando de Noronha Plain (Fernando de Noronha Abyssal Plain, Planicie Abissal de Fernando de Noronha) South Atlantic Ocean 3°0′S 31°0′W / 3.000°S 31.000°W / -3.000; -31.000
Ferradura Plain (Ferradura Abyssal Plain, Planicie Abissal da Ferradura) North Atlantic Ocean 36°0′N 10°45′W / 36.000°N 10.750°W / 36.000; -10.750
Fletcher Plain (Abissal’naya Ravnina Fletchera) Arctic Ocean 86°0′N 179°59′W / 86.000°N 179.983°W / 86.000; -179.983
Florida Plain (Florida Abyssal Plain) Gulf of Mexico (Atlantic Ocean) 25°30′N 86°0′W / 25.500°N 86.000°W / 25.500; -86.000
Fram Basin[19] (Barents Abyssal Plain, Barents Plain) One of two sub-basins of the Eurasian Basin. Arctic Ocean 83°0′N 35°0′E / 83.000°N 35.000°E / 83.000; 35.000
Gambia Plain (Gambia Abyssal Plain, Gambia Basin) North Atlantic Ocean 12°0′N 28°0′W / 12.000°N 28.000°W / 12.000; -28.000
Gascoyne Plain (Exmouth Abyssal Plain, Gascogne Plain, Gascoyne Abyssal Plain) Indian Ocean 16°0′S 110°0′E / 16.000°S 110.000°E / -16.000; 110.000
Greenland Plain (Greenland Abyssal Plain, Iceland Basin, Plaine du Groenland) Arctic Ocean 75°0′N 3°0′W / 75.000°N 3.000°W / 75.000; -3.000
Grenada Abyssal Plain Caribbean Sea (Atlantic Ocean)
Guiana Basin
Guinea Plain[14] (Guinea Abyssal Plain) North Atlantic Ocean 1°0′N 3°0′W / 1.000°N 3.000°W / 1.000; -3.000
Hatteras Plain (Hatteras Abyssal Plain) North Atlantic Ocean 31°0′N 71°0′W / 31.000°N 71.000°W / 31.000; -71.000
Herodotus Basin (Herodotus Abyssal Plain, Herodotus Plain) Libyan Sea (Mediterranean Sea) 33°0′N 28°0′E / 33.000°N 28.000°E / 33.000; 28.000
Hellenic Trench (Metapan Deep System) Ionian Sea 36°23′N 22°38′E / 36.383°N 22.633°E / 36.383; 22.633
Hispaniola Plain (Hispaniola Abyssal Plain) North Atlantic Ocean 20°18′N 71°35′W / 20.300°N 71.583°W / 20.300; -71.583
Horseshoe Plain (Horseshoe Abyssal Plain) North Atlantic Ocean 35°40′N 12°20′W / 35.667°N 12.333°W / 35.667; -12.333
Iberian Plain[28][29] (Iberia Abyssal Plain, Iberian Abyssal Plain) North Atlantic Ocean 43°45′N 13°30′W / 43.750°N 13.500°W / 43.750; -13.500
Jamaican Abyssal Plain Caribbean Sea (Atlantic Ocean)
Japan Plain (Japan Abyssal Plain) Sea of Japan (Pacific Ocean) 41°30′N 135°0′E / 41.500°N 135.000°E / 41.500; 135.000
Labrador Basin (Newfoundland Basin)
Laurentian Abyss North Atlantic Ocean
Madeira Plain (Madeira Abyssal Plain) North Atlantic Ocean 32°0′N 21°0′W / 32.000°N 21.000°W / 32.000; -21.000
Makarov Basin one of two sub-basins of the Amerasian Basin. Arctic Ocean
Mascarene Plain[30] (Madagascar Basin, Malagasy Abyssal Plain, Seychelles-Mauritius Plateau) Indian Ocean 19°0′S 52°0′E / 19.000°S 52.000°E / -19.000; 52.000
Melanesian Basin
Mendeleyev Plain[19] (Mendeleyev Abyssal Plain) Arctic Ocean 81°0′N 170°0′W / 81.000°N 170.000°W / 81.000; -170.000
Mid Indian Abyssal Plain (Mid-Indian Basin) Indian Ocean
Mornington Abyssal Plain South Pacific Ocean
Namibia Abyssal Plain South Atlantic Ocean
Nansen Basin One of two sub-basins of the Eurasian Basin. Arctic Ocean
Nares Plain (Fosse Nares, Nares Abyssal Plain, Nares Deep, Nares Tiefe) North Atlantic Ocean 23°30′N 63°0′W / 23.500°N 63.000°W / 23.500; -63.000
Natal Basin
North Australian Basin (Argo Abyssal Plain, Bassin Nord de l' Australie, Severo-Avstralijskaja Kot) Indian Ocean 14°30′S 116°30′E / 14.500°S 116.500°E / -14.500; 116.500
North Polar Basin (consists of the Amerasian Basin and the Eurasian Basin)
Northwest Pacific Basin
Northwind Plain USCGC Northwind (WAGB-282) (Northwind Abyssal Plain) Arctic Ocean 76°0′N 161°0′W / 76.000°N 161.000°W / 76.000; -161.000
Okhotsk Abyssal Plain Sea of Okhotsk (western Pacific Ocean)
Oman Plain (Arabian Basin, Oman Abyssal Plain) Arabian Sea (Indian Ocean) 23°0′N 61°0′E / 23.000°N 61.000°E / 23.000; 61.000
Panama Plain (Clark Abyssal Plain) Caribbean Sea (Atlantic Ocean) 11°0′N 79°0′W / 11.000°N 79.000°W / 11.000; -79.000
Papua Plain (Papua Abyssal Plain) South Pacific Ocean 14°0′S 151°30′E / 14.000°S 151.500°E / -14.000; 151.500
Para Abyssal Plain North Atlantic Ocean
Penrhyn Basin
Pernambuco Plain (Pernambuco Abyssal Plain) South Atlantic Ocean 7°30′S 27°0′W / 7.500°S 27.000°W / -7.500; -27.000
Perth Plain[31] (Perth Abyssal Plain, Perth Basin, West Australian Basin) Indian Ocean 28°30′S 110°0′E / 28.500°S 110.000°E / -28.500; 110.000
Peru Basin
Pole Plain (Central Polar Basin, Pole Abyssal Plain) Arctic Ocean 89°0′N 45°0′E / 89.000°N 45.000°E / 89.000; 45.000
Porcupine Abyssal Plain[32][33] (Porcupine Plain, West European Plain) North Atlantic Ocean 49°0′N 16°0′W / 49.000°N 16.000°W / 49.000; -16.000
Raukumara Abyssal Plain South Pacific Ocean
Rhodes Basin (Rhodes Abyssal Plain, Ró2dhos Basin) Sea of Crete (Mediterranean Sea) 35°55′N 28°30′E / 35.917°N 28.500°E / 35.917; 28.500
Roggeveen Basin
Sardino-Balearic Plain (Algerian Plain, Balearic Abyssal Plain, Balearic Plain, Sardino-Balearic Abyssal Plain) Mediterranean Sea 39°0′N 6°20′E / 39.000°N 6.333°E / 39.000; 6.333
Seine Plain (Seine Abyssal Plain) North Atlantic Ocean 34°0′N 12°15′W / 34.000°N 12.250°W / 34.000; -12.250
Siberian Abyssal Plain[19] Arctic Ocean
Sicilia Plain (Messina Abyssal Plain, Sicily Plain) Mediterranean Sea 36°0′N 18°0′E / 36.000°N 18.000°E / 36.000; 18.000
Sierra Leone Plain (Sierra Leone Abyssal Plain, Sierra Leone Basin) North Atlantic Ocean 5°0′N 17°0′W / 5.000°N 17.000°W / 5.000; -17.000
Sigsbee Deep (Mexico Basin, Sigsbee Abyssal Plain, Sigsbee Deep, Sigsbee Basin) Gulf of Mexico (Atlantic Ocean) 23°30′N 93°0′W / 23.500°N 93.000°W / 23.500; -93.000
Silver Plain (Silver Abyssal Plain) North Atlantic Ocean 22°30′N 69°30′W / 22.500°N 69.500°W / 22.500; -69.500
Sirte Basin[34] (Ionian Abyssal Plain, Sidra Abyssal Plain, Sidra Plain, Sirte Abyssal Plain, Surt Plain) Libyan Sea (Mediterranean Sea) 34°10′N 19°22′E / 34.167°N 19.367°E / 34.167; 19.367
Sohm Abyssal Plain[5] (Fosse de Suhm, Plaine Sohm, Sohm Deep, Sohm Plain, Suhm Abyssal Plain, Suhm Deep, Suhm Plain) North Atlantic Ocean 36°0′N 55°0′W / 36.000°N 55.000°W / 36.000; -55.000
Somali Plain (Somali Abyssal Plain, Somali Basin) Indian Ocean 1°0′N 51°30′E / 1.000°N 51.500°E / 1.000; 51.500
South Australian Plain (Eyre Abyssal Plain, Great Bight Abyssal Plain, South Australian Abyssal Plain) Indian Ocean 37°30′S 130°0′E / 37.500°S 130.000°E / -37.500; 130.000
South China Basin (South China Sea Abyssal Plain) South China Sea (Pacific Ocean) 15°0′N 115°0′E / 15.000°N 115.000°E / 15.000; 115.000
South East Pacific Basin
South Fiji Basin
South Indian Plain (South Indian Abyssal Plain, South Indian Basin, South Indian Ocean Plain) Southern Ocean 59°0′S 125°0′E / 59.000°S 125.000°E / -59.000; 125.000
South West Pacific Abyssal Plain[35][36][37] (South West Pacific Basin) South Pacific Ocean
Tagus Abyssal Plain (Tagus Plain) North Atlantic Ocean 37°30′N 12°0′W / 37.500°N 12.000°W / 37.500; -12.000
Tasman Plain (Tasman Abyssal Plain, Tasman Apron, Tasman Basin) Tasman Sea (South Pacific Ocean) 34°30′S 153°15′E / 34.500°S 153.250°E / -34.500; 153.250
Town Abyssal Plain South Atlantic Ocean
Tsushima Basin (Ulleung Basin) Korea Strait (Sea of Japan, Pacific Ocean) 36°35′N 131°48′E / 36.583°N 131.800°E / 36.583; 131.800
Tufts Plain (Tufts Abyssal Plain) North Pacific Ocean 47°0′N 140°0′W / 47.000°N 140.000°W / 47.000; -140.000
Tyrrhenian Plain (Tyrrhenian Abyssal Plain) Tyrrhenian Sea (Mediterranean Sea) 40°0′N 12°45′E / 40.000°N 12.750°E / 40.000; 12.750
Valdivia Abyssal Plain Southern Ocean 62°30′S 70°0′E / 62.500°S 70.000°E / -62.500; 70.000
Venezuelan Plain (Venezuela Abyssal Plain) Caribbean Sea (Atlantic Ocean) 14°0′N 67°0′W / 14.000°N 67.000°W / 14.000; -67.000
Vidal Abyssal Plain North Atlantic Ocean
Weddell Plain[38] (Weddell Abyssal Plain) Southern Ocean 65°0′S 20°0′W / 65.000°S 20.000°W / -65.000; -20.000
Wrangellia Terrane[19][39][40][41][42][43][44][45][46] (Wrangel Abyssal Plain) Arctic Ocean 81°0′N 160°0′E / 81.000°N 160.000°E / 81.000; 160.000
Yamato Basin Sea of Japan (Pacific Ocean) 37°30′N 135°0′E / 37.500°N 135.000°E / 37.500; 135.000
Yucatan Abyssal Plain (Guatemala Basin) Caribbean Sea (Atlantic Ocean)

Oceanic trenches

Location of the Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench

Oceanic trenches are long, narrow topographic depressions of the seabed. They are the deepest parts of the ocean floor, and they define one of the most important natural boundaries on the Earth's solid surface: the one between two lithospheric plates. Trenches are a distinctive morphological feature of plate boundaries. Trenches are found in all oceans with the exception of the Arctic Ocean and they are most common in the North and South Pacific Oceans.[2]

There are three types of lithospheric plate boundaries: 1.) divergent (where lithosphere and oceanic crust is created at mid-ocean ridges), 2.) convergent (where one lithospheric plate sinks beneath another and returns to the mantle), and 3.) transform (where two lithospheric plates slide past each other).

An oceanic trench is a type of convergent boundary at which two oceanic lithospheric slabs meet; the older (and therefore denser) of these slabs flexes and subducts beneath the other slab. Oceanic lithosphere moves into trenches at a global rate of about a tenth of a square meter per second. Trenches are generally parallel to a volcanic island arc, and about 200 km from a volcanic arc. Oceanic trenches typically extend 3 to 4 km (1.9 to 2.5 mi) below the level of the surrounding oceanic floor. The greatest ocean depth to be sounded is in the Challenger Deep of the Mariana Trench, at a depth of 10,911 m (35,798 ft) below sea level.

List of oceanic trenches

Main article: Oceanic trench

The following is a list of the deepest parts of the Earth's oceans and seas (all depths are measured from sea level):

Name Location Depth (meters) Depth (feet) Depth (miles)
1 Challenger Deep Izu-Bonin-Mariana Arc, Mariana Trench, Pacific Ocean 11,033 36,197 6.86
2 Tonga Trench Pacific Ocean 10,882 35,702 6.76
3 Galathea Depth Philippine Trench, Pacific Ocean 10,540 34,580 6.54
4 Kuril-Kamchatka Trench Pacific Ocean 10,500 34,449 6.52
5 Kermadec Trench Pacific Ocean 10,047 32,963 6.24
6 Izu-Ogasawara Trench Pacific Ocean 9,780 32,087 6.08
7 Japan Trench Pacific Ocean 9,000 29,527 5.59
8 Puerto Rico Trench Atlantic Ocean 8,605 28,232 5.35
9 Yap Trench Pacific Ocean 8,527 27,976 5.30
10 South Sandwich Trench Atlantic Ocean 8,428 27,651 5.24
11 Richards Deep Peru–Chile Trench, Pacific Ocean 8,065 26,456 5.01
12 Diamantina Deep Diamantina Fracture Zone, Indian Ocean 8,047 26,401 5.00
13 Romanche Trench Atlantic Ocean 7,760 25,460 4.82
14 Cayman Trough Caribbean Sea 7,686 25,238 4.78
15 Aleutian Trench Pacific Ocean 7,679 25,194 4.77
16 Java Trench Indian Ocean 7,455 24,460 4.63
17 Middle America Trench Pacific Ocean 6,669 21,880 4.14
18 Puysegur Trench Pacific Ocean 6,300 20,700 3.9
19 Vityaz Trench Pacific Ocean 6,150 20,177 3.8
20 Litke Deep Eurasian Basin*, Arctic Ocean 5,450 17,881 3.39
21 Manila Trench South China Sea 5,400 17,700 3.36
22 Calypso Deep Hellenic Trench, Mediterranean Sea 5,267 17,280 3.27
23 Ryukyu Trench Pacific Ocean 5,212 17,100 3.24
24 Murray Canyon* Southern Ocean, Australia 5,000 16,400 3.1

Oceanic plateau

An oceanic plateau is a large, relatively flat submarine region that rises well above the level of the ambient seabed.[47] While many oceanic plateaus are composed of continental crust, and often form a step interrupting the continental slope, some plateaus are undersea remnants of large igneous provinces. Continental crust has the highest amount of silicon (such rock is called felsic). Oceanic crust has a smaller amount of silicon (mafic rock).

The anomalous volcanism associated with the formation of oceanic plateaux at the time of the Cenomanian-Turonian boundary (90.4 million years) ago may have been responsible for the environmental disturbances that occurred at that time. The physical manifestations of this were elevated atmospheric and oceanic temperatures, a significant sea-level transgression, and a period of widespread anoxia, leading to the extinction of 26% of all genera.[48] These eruptions would also have resulted in the emission of large quantities of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, leading to global warming. Additionally, the emission of sulfur monoxide, hydrogen sulfide, carbon monoxide, and halogens into the oceans would have made seawater more acidic resulting in the dissolution of carbonate, and further release of CO2. This runaway greenhouse effect was probably put into reverse by the decline of the anomalous volcanic activity and by increased CO2-driven productivity in oceanic surface waters, leading to increased organic carbon burial, black shale deposition, anoxia and mass extinction in the ocean basins.[48]

Map of the Zealandia microcontinent, showing Alpine Fault, Bounty Trough, Campbell Plateau, Challenger Plateau, Chatham Rise, Havre Trough, Hikurangi Plateau, Kermadec Trench, Lord Howe Rise, Louisville Ridge, New Caledonia Basin, Norfolk Ridge, South Fiji Basin, South West Pacific Basin, and Tasman Basin.

List of oceanic plateaus

Main article: Oceanic plateau

Mid-ocean ridges

A mid-ocean ridge is a general term for an underwater mountain system that consists of various mountain ranges (chains), typically having a valley known as a rift running along its spine, formed by plate tectonics. This type of oceanic ridge is characteristic of what is known as an oceanic spreading center, which is responsible for seafloor spreading.

List of mid-ocean ridges

Main article: Mid-ocean ridge

See also

References

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  2. 1 2 Harris, P.T., MacMillan-Lawler, M., Rupp, J., Baker, E.K., 2014. Geomorphology of the oceans. Marine Geology 352, 4-24.
  3. ↑ Craig R. Smith, Fabio C. De Leo, Angelo F. Bernardino, Andrew K. Sweetman, and Pedro Martinez Arbizu (2008). "Abyssal food limitation, ecosystem structure and climate change" (PDF). Trends in Ecology and Evolution 23 (9): 518–528. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2008.05.002. PMID 18584909. Retrieved 27 June 2010.
  4. ↑ N.G. Vinogradova (1997). "Zoogeography of the Abyssal and Hadal Zones". Advances in Marine Biology. Advances in Marine Biology 32: 325–387. doi:10.1016/S0065-2881(08)60019-X. ISBN 978-0-12-026132-1. Retrieved 27 June 2010.
  5. 1 2 3 Ivan Tolstoy & Maurice Ewing (October 1949). "North Atlantic hydrography and the mid-Atlantic Ridge". Geological Society of America Bulletin 60 (10): 1527–40. Bibcode:1949GSAB...60.1527T. doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1949)60[1527:NAHATM]2.0.CO;2.
  6. ↑ Bruce C. Heezen, Maurice Ewing and D.B. Ericson (December 1951). "Submarine topography in the North Atlantic". Geological Society of America Bulletin 62 (12): 1407–1417. Bibcode:1951GSAB...62.1407H. doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1951)62[1407:STITNA]2.0.CO;2. ISSN 0016-7606. Retrieved 29 June 2010.
  7. ↑ Bruce C. Heezen, D.B. Ericson and Maurice Ewing (July 1954). "Further evidence for a turbidity current following the 1929 Grand banks earthquake". Deep-Sea Research 1 (4): 193–202. Bibcode:1954DSR.....1..193H. doi:10.1016/0146-6313(54)90001-5. Retrieved 26 June 2010.
  8. ↑ F.F. Koczy (1954). "A survey on deep-sea features taken during the Swedish deep-sea expedition". Deep-Sea Research 1 (3): 176–184. Bibcode:1954DSR.....1..176K. doi:10.1016/0146-6313(54)90047-7. Retrieved 26 June 2010.
  9. ↑ Bruce C. Heezen, Marie Tharp, and Maurice Ewing (1962). "The Floors of the Oceans. I. The North Atlantic. Text to Accompany the Physiographic Diagram of the North Atlantic". In H. Caspers. Internationale Revue der gesamten Hydrobiologie und Hydrographie 47. Weinheim: WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Company. p. 487. doi:10.1002/iroh.19620470311. Retrieved 26 June 2010.
  10. ↑ Bruce C. Heezen & A.S. Laughton (1963). "Abyssal plains". In M.N. Hill. The Sea 3. New York: Wiley-Interscience. pp. 312–64.
  11. 1 2 Marc Wick (16 June 2010). "Record search for "abyssal plain"". Switzerland: GeoNames geographical database. Retrieved 27 June 2010. External link in |publisher= (help)
  12. ↑ "Viewing the Earth from space". DK Millennium World Atlas: A Portrait of the Earth in the Year 2000. New York: Dorling Kindersley Publishing. 1 October 1999. pp. xvi–xvii. ISBN 978-0-7894-4604-6.
  13. ↑ Gabriele Uenzelmann‐Neben, Karsten Gohl, Axel Ehrhardt, Michael Seargent (1999). "Agulhas Plateau, SW Indian Ocean: New Evidence for Excessive Volcanism". Geophysical Research Letters 26 (13): 1941–1944. Bibcode:1999GeoRL..26.1941U. doi:10.1029/1999GL900391. Retrieved 27 June 2010.
  14. 1 2 3 Frank Scheckenbach, Klaus Hausmann, Claudia Wylezich, Markus Weitere and Hartmut Arndt (5 January 2010). "Large-scale patterns in biodiversity of microbial eukaryotes from the abyssal sea floor". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107 (1): 115–120. Bibcode:2010PNAS..107..115S. doi:10.1073/pnas.0908816106. PMC 2806785. PMID 20007768. Retrieved 27 June 2010.
  15. ↑ Pedro Martínez Arbizu and Horst Kurt Schminke (18 February 2005). "DIVA-1 expedition to the deep sea of the Angola Basin in 2000 and DIVA-1 workshop 2003". Organisms Diversity & Evolution 5 (Supplement 1): 1–2. doi:10.1016/j.ode.2004.11.009. Retrieved 27 June 2010.
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  17. ↑ Mursch, A., Brenke, N. & J.W. Wägele (2008). "Results of the DIVA-1 expedition of RV "Meteor" (Cruise M48:1): Three new species of Munnopsidae Sars, 1864 from abyssal depths of the Angola Basin (Crustacea: Isopoda: Asellota)". In Pedro Martinez Arbizu & Saskia Brix. Bringing light into deep-sea biodiversity (Zootaxa 1866) (PDF). Auckland, New Zealand: Magnolia Press. pp. 493–539. ISBN 978-1-86977-260-4. Retrieved 27 June 2010.
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  19. 1 2 3 4 5 6 P.D.N. Hebert (Professor, Department of Zoology). "Towering Mountains". Canada's Aquatic Environments. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: CyberNatural Software, University of Guelph. Retrieved 27 June 2010.
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  42. ↑ Greene, A.R., Scoates, J.S., Weis, D. and Israel, S. (2005). "Flood basalts of the Wrangellia Terrane, southwest Yukon: Implications for the formation of oceanic plateaus, continental crust and Ni-Cu-PGE mineralization". In D.S. Emond, L.L. Lewis and G.D. Bradshaw. Yukon Exploration and Geology (PDF). Yukon Geological Survey. pp. 109–120. Retrieved 27 June 2010.
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  44. ↑ Jeffrey M. Trop, Kenneth D. Ridgway, Jeffrey D. Manuszak and Paul Layer (June 2002). "Mesozoic sedimentary-basin development on the allochthonous Wrangellia composite terrane, Wrangell Mountains basin, Alaska: A long-term record of terrane migration and arc construction". Geological Society of America Bulletin 114 (6): 693–717. Bibcode:2002GSAB..114..693T. doi:10.1130/0016-7606(2002)114<0693:MSBDOT>2.0.CO;2. ISSN 0016-7606. Retrieved 27 June 2010.
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  49. ↑ Uenzelmann-Neben, G., K. Gohl, A. Ehrhardt, and M. Seargent (1999). Agulhas Plateau, SW Indian Ocean: New Evidence for Excessive Volcanism, Geophysical Research Letters, 26(13), 1941–1944.

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