List of the oldest buildings in the world

This article lists the oldest free-standing buildings constructed in the world, including on each of the continents and within each country. "Building" is defined as any human-made structure used or intended for supporting or sheltering any use or continuous occupancy. In order to qualify for list a structure must:

• be a recognisable building;
• incorporate features of building work from the claimed date to at least 1.5 metres (4.9 ft) in height;
• be largely complete or include building work to this height for most of its perimeter.
• contains an enclosed area with at least one entry point.

This consciously excludes ruins of limited height and statues. The list also excludes:

• dolmens—a type of single-chamber megalithic tomb, usually consisting of three or more upright stones supporting a large flat horizontal capstone—unless they were originally covered over to form a barrow and used for collective burials. (Neolithic dolmens are extremely numerous, with over 1,000 reported from Mecklenburg-Vorpommern in Germany alone.)^[1]
• cairns which are simply large piles of loose stones (as opposed to chambered cairns.)

Dates for many of the oldest structures have been arrived at by radiocarbon dating and should be considered approximate.

By age

The following are amongst the oldest buildings in the world that have maintained the requirements to be such. Occupation sites with older human made structures such as those in Göbekli Tepe do exist, but the structures are monuments and do not meet the definition of building (which can be seen above). Many of the buildings within the list contain primarily bricks, but most importantly maintain their walls and roof. There are numerous extant structures that survive in the Orkney islands of Scotland, some of the best known of which are part of the Heart of Neolithic Orkney World Heritage Site.^[2] The list also contains many large buildings from the Egyptian Age of the Pyramids.

Building	Image	Country	Continent	First Built	Use	Notes
Barnenez		France	Europe	4850 BC	Passage grave	Located in northern Finistère and partially restored. According to André Malraux it would have been better named ‘The Prehistoric Parthenon’. The structure is 72 m long, 25 m wide and over 8 m high.[3][4] As of current, it is the oldest building by strict definition.
Tumulus of Bougon		France	Europe	4700 BC	Tumulus	A complex of tombs with varying dates near Poitiers, the oldest being F0.[3]
Tumulus Saint-Michel		France	Europe	4500 BC	Tumulus	The tumulus forms what is almost an artificial hillock of more than 30,000m3 (125m long, 60m wide and 10m high).[5][6]
Monte d'Accoddi		Italy	Europe	4000–3650 BC [7][8]	Possibly an open-air temple, ziggurat, or a step pyramid, mastaba.	A trapezoidal platform on an artificial mound, reached by a sloped causeway. New radiocarbon dating (2011) allow us to date the building of the first monument to 4000–3650 BC, the second shrine dating to 3500–3000 BC."[9]
Knap of Howar		Scotland	Europe	3700 BC	House	Oldest preserved stone house in north west Europe.[10][11][12]
Ġgantija		Malta	Europe	3700 BC	Temple	Two structures on the island of Gozo. The second was built four centuries after the oldest.[13][14]
West Kennet Long Barrow		England	Europe	3650 BC	Tomb	Located near Silbury Hill and Avebury stone circle.[15]
Listoghil		Ireland	Europe	3550 BC	Passage Tomb	At the centre of the Carrowmore passage tomb cluster, a simple box-shaped chamber is surrounded by a kerb c.34m in diameter and partly covered by a cairn. It has been partly reconstructed.[16]
Pentre Ifan		Wales	Europe	3500BC	Neolithic Dolmen	It contains and gives its name to the largest and best preserved neolithic dolmen in Wales. One of the oldest and best preserved Neolithic dolmen in UK.[17]
Sechin Bajo		Peru	South America	3500 BC	Plaza	The oldest known building in the Americas.[18]
La Hougue Bie		Jersey	Europe	3500 BC	Passage grave	An 18.6 metre long passage chamber. The chapel above is medieval.[19]
Midhowe Chambered Cairn		Scotland	Europe	3500 BC	Tomb	A well-preserved example of the Orkney-Cromarty type on the island of Rousay.[20]
Gavrinis passage tomb		France	Europe	3500 BC	Tomb	On a small island, situated in the Gulf of Morbihan.[21]
Wayland's Smithy		England	Europe	3460 BC	Chamber tomb	A barrow constructed on top of an older burial chamber.[22]
Unstan Chambered Cairn		Scotland	Europe	3450 BC	Tomb	Excavated in 1884, when grave goods were found, giving their name to Unstan ware.[23][24][25]
Knowe of Yarso chambered cairn		Scotland	Europe	3350 BC	Tomb	One of several Rousay tombs. It contained numerous deer skeletons when excavated in the 1930s.[23][26][27]
Quanterness chambered cairn		Scotland	Europe	3250 BC	Tomb	The remains of 157 individuals were found inside when excavated in the 1970s.[23][28]
Tarxien Temples		Malta	Europe	3250 BC	Temples	Part of the Megalithic Temples of Malta World Heritage Site.[13][29]
Shahr-e Sukhteh		Iran	Asia	3200BC	Settlement	a rich source of information regarding the emergence of complex societies and contacts between them in the third millennium [30]
Skara Brae		Scotland	Europe	3180 BC	Settlement	Northern Europe's best preserved Neolithic village.[31]
Tomb of the Eagles		Scotland	Europe	3150 BC	Tomb	In use for 800 years or more. Numerous bird bones were found here, predominantly white-tailed sea eagle.[32][33]
Newgrange		Ireland	Europe	3100–2900 BC	Burial	Partially reconstructed around original passage grave.[34]
Dolmen de Bagneux		France	Europe	3000 BC	Dolmen	This is the largest dolmen in France, and perhaps the world, the overall length of the dolmen is 23 m (75 ft), with the internal chamber at over 18 m (60 ft) in length and at least 3m high.[35][36][37]
Grey Cairns of Camster		Scotland	Europe	3000 BC or older	Tomb	Located near Upper Camster in Caithness.[38][39]
Hulbjerg Jættestue		Denmark	Europe	3000 BC	Passage grave	The grave is concealed by a round barrow on the southern tip of the island of Langeland. One of the skulls found there showed traces of the world's earliest dentistry work.[40][41][42]
Maikop kurgans		Russia	Europe	3000 BC	Tomb	There are numerous tombs, some perhaps originating in the Maikop culture, in the North Caucasus.[43][44]
Taversoe Tuick chambered cairn		Scotland	Europe	3000 BC	Tomb	Unusually, there is an upper and lower chamber.[45]
Holm of Papa chambered cairn		Scotland	Europe	3000 BC	Tomb	The central chamber is over 20 metres long.[46][47]
Barpa Langass		Scotland	Europe	3000 BC	Tomb	The best preserved chambered cairn in the Hebrides.[48][49]
Cuween Hill Chambered Cairn		Scotland	Europe	3000 BC	Tomb	Excavated in 1901, when it was found to contain the bones of men, dogs and oxen.[50][51]
Quoyness cairn		Scotland	Europe	2900 BC	Tomb	An arc of Bronze Age mounds surrounds this cairn on the island of Sanday.[52]
Maeshowe		Scotland	Europe	2800 BC	Tomb	The entrance passage is 36 feet (11 m) long and leads to the central chamber measuring about 15 feet (4.6 m) on each side.[53][54]
Pyramid of Djoser		Egypt	Africa	2667–2648 BC	Burial	Earliest large-scale cut stone construction.[55]
Harappa		Pakistan	Asia	2600BC	Settlement	A Bronze Age fortified city with clay sculpured houses in west of Sahiwal. [56] The civilization, with a possible writing system, urban centers, and diversified social and economic system.
Mohenjo Daro		Pakistan	Asia	2600BC	Settlement	Archeological site near Lankana,Sindh. [57] World's earliest settlement with one and two storied brick houses, public baths, assembly halls, central marketplace and covered drains.
Dholavira		India	Asia	2650 BC-2100 BC	Settlement	A complex of ruins with varying dates at Dholavira.[58][59][60] Brick water reservoirs, with steps, circular graves & ruins of well planned town.
Caral		Peru	South America	2600 BC	Pyramid	Once thought to be the oldest building in South America.[61]
Pyramid of Meidum		Egypt	Africa	c. 2580 BC	Tomb	Fourth Dynasty structure completed by Sneferu.
Bent Pyramid		Egypt	Africa	c. 2580 BC	Tomb	A second structure completed by Sneferu.
Red Pyramid		Egypt	Africa	c. 2580 BC	Tomb	Third large pyramid completed by Sneferu.[62]
Great Pyramid of Giza		Egypt	Africa	2560 BC	Tomb	Mausoleum for fourth dynasty Egyptian Pharaoh Khufu.[63]
Knowth		Ireland	Europe	Between 2500-2000 BC	Passage grave	[64]
Pyramid of Khafre		Egypt	Africa	c. 2500 BC	Tomb	One of the Pyramids of Giza.[65]
Pyramid of Menkaure		Egypt	Africa	c. 2500 BC	Tomb	Menkaure was probably Khafre's successor.
Dowth		Ireland	Europe	2500 BC	Tomb	The cairn is about 85 metres (280 ft) in diameter and 15 metres (50 ft) high.[64]
Pyramid of Userkaf		Egypt	Africa	c. 2480 BC	Tomb	Located close to Pyramid of Djoser.[66]
Pyramid of Sahure		Egypt	Africa	c. 2480 BC	Tomb	Built for Sahure.[67]
Pyramid of Neferirkare Kakai		Egypt	Africa	c. 2460 BC	Tomb	Built for Neferirkare Kakai.[67]
Pyramid of Neferefre		Egypt	Africa	c. 2455 BC	Tomb	Never completed but does contain a tomb.[67]
Pyramid of Niuserre		Egypt	Africa	c. 2425 BC	Tomb	[68]
Pyramid of Djedkare-Isesi		Egypt	Africa	c. 2370 BC	Tomb
Pyramid of Unas		Egypt	Africa	c. 2340 BC	Tomb	[69]
Pyramid of Teti		Egypt	Africa	c. 2330 BC	Tomb
Labbacallee		Ireland	Europe	c. 2300 BC	Tomb	The largest wedge tomb in Ireland.
Pyramid of Merenre		Egypt	Africa	c. 2275 BC	Tomb	Built for Merenre Nemtyemsaf I but not completed.
Pyramid of Pepi II Neferkare		Egypt	Africa	c. 2180 BC	Tomb
Crantit cairn		Scotland	Europe	2130 BC	Tomb	Discovered in 1998 near Kirkwall.[70][71]
Dolmen de Viera		Spain	Europe	2000 BC	Tomb	The Dolmen de Viera or Dolmen de los Hermanos Viera is a dolmen—a type of single-chamber megalithic tomb[72]
Rubha an Dùnain passage grave		Scotland	Europe	2000 BC or older	Tomb	[73][74][75]
Corrimony chambered cairn		Scotland	Europe	2000 BC or older	Tomb	A Clava-type passage grave surrounded by a circle of 11 standing stones.[76][77]
Knossos		Greece	Europe	2000–1300 BC	Palace	Minoan structure on a Neolithic site.[78]
Bryn Celli Ddu		Wales	Europe	2000 BC	Tomb	Located on the island of Anglesey.[79]
Balnuaran of Clava		Scotland	Europe	2000 BC	Tomb	The largest of three is the north-east cairn, which was partially reconstructed in the 19th century. The central cairn may have been used as a funeral pyre.[75][80][81]
Vinquoy cairn, Eday		Scotland	Europe	2000 BC	Tomb	[82]
Pyramid of Amenemhat I		Egypt	Africa	c. 1960 BC	Tomb
Pyramid of Senusret I		Egypt	Africa	c. 1920 BC	Tomb
Pyramid of Senusret II		Egypt	Africa	c. 1875 BC	Tomb
Pyramid of Senusret III		Egypt	Africa	c. 1835 BC	Tomb	Built for Senusret III
Black Pyramid		Egypt	Africa	c. 1820 BC	Tomb	Built for Amenemhat III, it has multiple structural deficits.
Hawara		Egypt	Africa	c. 1810 BC	Tomb	Also built for Amenemhat III.
Pyramid of Khendjer		Egypt	Africa	c. 1760 BC	Tomb	Built for pharaoh Khendjer
Nuraghe Santu Antine		Italy	Europe	1600 BC	Possibly a fort	The second tallest of these megalithic edifices found in Sardinia and tallest still standing.[83]
Su Nuraxi di Barumini		Italy	Europe	1500 BC	Possibly a fort or a palace	The palace of Barumini is formed by a huge quatrefoiled nuraghe, whose central tower is its oldest construction. Originally it was almost 20 metres high and divided into three floors.[84][85]
Nuraghe La Prisciona		Italy	Europe	1400 BC	Possibly a fort	The monument has a central tower and 2 side towers, the former with an entrance defined by a massive lintel of 3.20 m. The central chamber has a false dome, which is more than 6 meters high.[86]
The Ziggurat of Dur-Kurigalzu		Iraq	Asia	14th century BC	Probably religious rituals	Built for the Kassite King Kurigalzu I.[87]
Treasury of Atreus		Greece	Europe	1250 BC	Tomb	The tallest and widest dome in the world for over a thousand years.[88]
Chogha Zanbil		Iran	Asia	1250 BC	Temple	One of the few extant ziggurats outside of Mesopotamia.[89]
Naveta d'Es Tudons		Spain	Europe	1200-750 BC	Ossuary	The most famous megalithic chamber tomb in Minorca.[90]
Dún Aonghasa		Ireland	Europe	1100 BC	Fort	Dún Aonghasa, also called Dun Aengus, has been described as one of the most spectacular prehistoric monuments in western Europe. The drystone walled hillfort is made up of 4 widely spaced concentric ramparts.[91][92]
The King's Grave		Sweden	Europe	1000 BC	Tomb	Near Kivik is the remains of an unusually grand Nordic Bronze Age double burial.[93]
Cuicuilco Circular Pyramid		Mexico	North America	800–600 BC	Ceremonial center	One of the oldest standing structures of the Mesoamerican cultures. First steps in the creation of a sun based calendar.[94]
Van Fortress		Turkey	Asia	750 BC	Fortress	Massive Urartean stone fortification overlooking Tushpa.
Necropolises of Cerveteri and Tarquinia		Italy	Europe	700 BC	Tombs	These Etruscan necropolises contain thousands of tombs, some organized in a city-like plan.[95]
Temple of Hera		Italy	Europe	550 BC	Temple	Part of a complex of three great temples in Doric style.[96]
Tomb of Cyrus		Iran	Asia	530 BC	Tomb	Tomb of Cyrus the Great, located in Pasargadae
Parthenon		Greece	Europe	432–447 BC	Temple	In the Acropolis of Athens
Thracian Tomb of Kazanlak		Bulgaria	Europe	300–400 BC	Tomb	Located near Seutopolis, the capital city of the Thracian king Seuthes III, and part of a large necropolis.[97]
Sanchi Stupa		India	Asia	300 BC	Buddhist temple	In the village of Sanchi
Dhamek Stupa		India	Asia	249 BC	Buddhist Temple	In Sarnath, Varanasi
Broch of Mousa		Scotland	Europe	100 BC	Broch	Located in Shetland it is among the best-preserved prehistoric buildings in Europe.[98][99]
Dun Carloway		Scotland	Europe	100 BC	Broch	Built in the first century BCE[100]
Lei Cheng Uk Han Tomb Museum		Hong Kong	Asia	25 AD	Tomb
Colosseum		Italy	Europe	70–80 AD	Amphitheatre

By continent

The following are amongst the oldest extant buildings on each of the major continents.

Building	Image	Country	Continent	First Built	Use	Notes
Göbekli Tepe		Turkey	Asia	7560 BC	neolithic sanctuary	Göbekli Tepe is an archaeological site at the top of a mountain ridge in the Southeastern Anatolia Region of Turkey. The tell has a height of 15 m (49 ft) and is about 300 m (984 ft) in diameter and includes two phases of ritual use dating back to the 10th-8th millennium BCE. The purpose of the structures is not yet clear.
Neolithic Dwellings Museum		Bulgaria	Europe	6000 BC	Neolithic and Chalcolithic	Neolithic Dwellings, Stara Zagora (Bulgarian: [неолитни жилища) It represents two Neolithic houses dating back to the 6th millennium BC. 1826 artifacts were found there. The Neolithic dwellings are the best-preserved in Europe from this period. Kitchens, fireplaces, hand grain mills, and ceramic vessels comprise the richest inventory of 6th millennium BC prehistoric house life in Europe. The prehistoric art exhibition displays 333 of the most important finds from the Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods (6th millennium BC – 3rd millennium BC).
Sechin Bajo		Peru	South America	3500 BCE	Plaza	The oldest known building in the Americas.[18][101]
Pyramid of Djoser		Egypt	Africa	2667–2648 BCE	Burial	Earliest large-scale cut stone construction[55]
Shahr-e Sukhteh		Iran	Asia	3200 BCE	The remains of the mud brick city[102]
Cuicuilco Circular Pyramid		Mexico	North America	800–600 BCE	Ceremonial center	One of the oldest standing structures of the Mesoamerican cultures.[94]
Wiebbe Hayes Stone Fort		Australia	Australasia	1629 CE	Defensive fort	Oldest known building in Australia, a defensive fort used by the survivors of the Batavia shipwreck on West Wallabi Island.[103]
Cape Adare huts		Ross Dependency	Antarctica	1899 CE	Explorers' huts	Wooden buildings constructed by Carsten Borchgrevink in Victoria Land.[104]

By country

The following are among the oldest buildings in their respective countries.

Building	Image	Country	Continent	First Built	Use	Notes
Weibbe Hayes Stone Fort		Australia	Australasia	1629 AD	Stone Fort	Old stone fort built by the survivors of the Batavia shipwreck.
Thracian Tomb of Kazanlak		Bulgaria	Europe	300–400 BC	Tomb	Located near Seutopolis, the capital city of the Thracian king Seuthes III, and part of a large necropolis.[97]
Hulbjerg Jættestue		Denmark	Europe	3000 BC	Passage grave	The Hulbjerg passage grave is concealed by a round barrow on the southern tip of the island of Langeland. One of the skulls found there showed traces of the world's earliest dentistry work.[40][40]
West Kennet Long Barrow		England	Europe	3650 BC	Tomb	Located near Silbury Hill and Avebury stone circle.[15]
Barnenez		France	Europe	4850 BC	Passage grave	Located in northern Finistère and partially restored. The structure is 72 m long, 25 m wide and over 8 m high.[3][4] The oldest known building in Eurasia.
Porta Nigra		Germany	Europe	180 AD	Roman city gate	It is today the largest Roman city gate north of the Alps.[105]
Dholavira		India	Asia	2850BC	Reservoir	A planned urban settlement comprising reservoirs, pottery artifacts, seals, ornaments, vessels, etc.
Chogha Zanbil		Iran	Asia	1250 BC	Temple	One of the few extant ziggurats outside of Mesopotamia.[89]
The Ziggurat of Dur-Kurigalzu		Iraq	Asia	14th century BC	Probably religious rituals	Built by the Kassite King Kurigalzu I.[87]
Newgrange		Ireland	Europe	3200–2900 BC	Burial	Partially reconstructed around original passage grave.[34]
Monte d'Accoddi		Italy	Europe	4000–3600 BC	Possibly an open-air temple.	"A trapezoidal platform on an artificial mound, reached by a sloped causeway."[9]
Ġgantija		Malta	Europe	3700 BC	Temple	Two structures on the island of Gozo. The second was built four centuries after the oldest.[13][14]
Cuicuilco Circular Pyramid		Mexico	North America	800–600 BC	Ceremonial center	One of the oldest standing structures of the Mesoamerican cultures.[94]
Mission House		New Zealand	Australasia	1822	Religious	Built by Māori and missionary carpenters.[106]
Mehrgarh		Pakistan	Asia	c. 2600 BC	Mud brick storage structures	A complex of ruins with varying dates near Bolan Pass.[107][108]
Sechin Bajo		Peru	South America	3500 BC	Plaza	The oldest known building in the Americas.[18]
Knap of Howar		Scotland	Europe	3700 BC	House	Oldest preserved stone house in north west Europe.[10][11][12]
Naveta d'Es Tudons		Spain	Europe	1200-750 BC	Ossuary	The most famous megalithic chamber tomb in Minorca.[90]
The King's Grave		Sweden	Europe	1000 BC	Tomb	Near Kivik is the remains of an unusually grand Nordic Bronze Age double burial.[109]
Hattusa		Turkey	Asia	c. 1600 BC	Ramparts and ruined buildings	Capital of the Hittite Empire in the late Bronze Age located near modern Boğazkale.[110]
Ancestral Puebloan communities		United States	North America	750 AD	Villages	Pueblo construction began in 750 CE and continues to the present day. These buildings have been within the U.S. since 1848, when New Mexico was annexed.
Bryn Celli Ddu		Wales	Europe	2000 BC	Tomb	Located on the island of Anglesey.[79]

Miscellaneous

Oldest of their type

The following are probably the oldest buildings of their type.

Building	Image	Location	First Built	Use	Notes
Pyramid of Djoser		Saqqara, Egypt	2667–2648 BC	Tomb	Oldest large-scale cut stone construction[55]
Göbekli Tepe		Turkey	9500–8400 BC	Ceremonial	The oldest known human-made religious structure.[111][112]
Jokhang		Lhasa, China	c. 639 AD	Buddhist temple	Perhaps the world's oldest timber frame building.[113]
Nanchan Temple		Wutai, China	782 AD	Buddhist Temple	Its Great Buddha Hall is currently China's oldest extant timber building.
Ditherington Flax Mill		Shrewsbury, England	1797 AD	Industrial	The oldest iron framed building in the world.[114]
Maison Carrée		France	16 BC	Temple	The only completely preserved temple of the ancient world.[115]
Pantheon, Rome		Italy	125 AD	Religious	Oldest standing building still in regular use.[116]
Aula Palatina		Germany	306 AD	Palace basilica	Contains the largest extant hall from antiquity.[105]
Greensted Church		England	c. 1053 AD	Church	May be the oldest, extant wooden church in the world and the oldest, extant wooden building in Europe.[117][118]
Roykstovan in Kirkjubø		Faroe Islands	No clear date, middle of 11th century AD	Farmhouse	May be the oldest continuously inhabited wooden building in the world[119]
Mundeshwari Temple		Bihar, India	conflicting accounts; between 105-320 AD	Hindu Temple	May be the oldest surviving (non rebuilt) Hindu temple in the world[120][121]

Other structures

The following are very old human constructions that do not fit the above criteria for a building, typically because they are ruins that no longer fit the height requirement specified above or for which the only significant above-ground elements are single large stones.

Building	Image	Location	First Built	Use	Notes
Theopetra cave		Greece	21000 BC	Stone wall	The oldest known human-made structure. The structure is a stone wall that blocked two-thirds of the entrance to the Theopetra cave near Kalambaka on the north edge of the Thessalian plain. It was constructed 23,000 years ago, probably as a barrier to cold winds.[122][123]
Göbekli Tepe		Turkey	9500–8400 BC	Ceremonial	The oldest known human-made religious structure.[124][112]
Zealots of Jericho		Palestinian territories	8000 BC	Defensive/agricultural	See also Wall of Jericho.[125]
Çatalhöyük		Turkey	7400–6200 BC	Village ruins	[126]
Khirokitia		Cyprus	5800–3000 BC	Houses	Site has reconstructions of round houses.[127]
Les Fouaillages		Guernsey	4500 BC[128]	Tomb	Burial mound and associated building, in use from 4500-4000 and 3000-2000 BC. Findings include pottery sherds, stone tools, jewelry, flint, and arrowheads. Originally covered by a turf mound 35m long.[129]
Tumulus de Dissignac		France	4500–4000 BC[130]	Tumulus	Two Dolmenic chambers are covered by 15 metre diameter tumulus with corridors 11 metres in length. Substantially rebuilt.[131]
Table des Marchand		France	4000 BC	Dolmen	A modern cairn has been rebuilt over the capstone and supporting pillars.[132]
Temple of Ba`alat Gebal		Lebanon	c. 2700 BC	Temple	Located in the Phoenician city of Byblos, the nearby Temple of the Obelisks dates to c.1900-1600 BCE.[133][134]
Pyramid of Sekhemkhet aka the Buried Pyramid		Egypt	c. 2630 BC	Burial	An unfinished Third Dynasty structure largely hidden under sand. Only the lowest step of the pyramid was constructed at the time of his death.[135]
Great Sphinx of Giza		Egypt	2558–2532 BC	Statue	The largest monolith statue in the world, possibly completed during the reign of Khafra, although the subject is controversial.[136][137]
Large Stone Structure		Israel	1000 BC	Palace?	A major public building but probably not the ruins of King David's palace.[138]

See also

Lists

• Oldest buildings in the United Kingdom
• List of the oldest buildings in the United States
• Oldest buildings in Scotland
• List of oldest church buildings
• List of the oldest mosques in the world
• Oldest synagogues in the world

Sites

• Los Millares, a Chalcolithic site in Almería, Spain including both ruins and reconstructions

References

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