Luganda tones

Luganda, the main language of southern Uganda, is a tonal language, traditionally described as having three tones: high (á), low (à) and falling (â). Rising tones are not found in Luganda, even on long vowels, since a sequence such as [àá] automatically becomes [áá].[1][2]

Tones perform various functions in Luganda: they help to distinguish one word from another, they distinguish one verb tense from another, and they are also used in sentence intonation, for example, to distinguish a statement from a question.

The complexity of the Luganda tonal system has attracted the attention of numerous scholars, who have sought ways of describing Luganda tones most economically according to different linguistic models.[3]

General characteristics

Although there are many complexities of detail, the general lines of tone in Luganda are simple. Most sentences have a gradual descent from the first high tone to the last, as in the following sentence:[4]

The three high tones ú, ú, and áń stand out prominently from the other syllables, and each one is a little lower than the last. The toneless syllables between are lower in pitch than the high tones. This descent is known as downdrift or 'automatic downstep' and is common in many African languages whenever tones come in a sequence HLH.

Another type of tonal pattern very common in Luganda is the high tone plateau.[5] In this pattern, two high tones are at the same level, and the voice remains continuously high from one the other:

A third type of tonal pattern, not quite so common, is to have a series of low tones followed by a jump to a high one:

These three tonal patterns will be heard to occur again and again in Luganda sentences, and much of the description below concerns when to use one and when another.

Types

There are two main types of high tone in Luganda, the ordinary (lexical and grammatical) high tones which are always present in the word, and phrasal high tones which are added to toneless syllables and which can be present or absent depending on where in the sentence the word is used.

Lexical tones

Lexical high tones are those that go with particular words, such as those on the words below:

When a word is spoken in isolation or at the end of a sentence, a tone on the final syllable is always heard as a falling tone; but in other contexts, it will generally be heard as an ordinary high tone.

Some words in Luganda have two lexical high tones:

When this happens the two tones link into a plateau, and the syllables between are also raised.[9] (In this article, a plateau will be shown by underlining.)

Grammatical tones

A grammatical tone is one that arises when a verb is used in a particular tense. For example, a verb in the subjunctive mood always has a high or falling tone on the last syllable:[10]

In this article, to distinguish them from phrasal high tones, lexical and grammatical tones will be marked in bold.

Phrasal tones

Many words in Luganda (about a third of nouns) have no lexical tones. However, in most contexts, they acquire high tones on all but the first syllable or, to be more exact, on all but the first mora (see below).

A geminate consonant such as [tt] can count as one mora:

Since [àá] becomes [áá] in Luganda, the following word also has a high tone throughout:

Phrasal tones can also be added to the end of words that have a lexical high tone if there is at least one low tone after the lexical high tone. This low tone may be a complete syllable or the second half of a syllable with a falling tone:

Whenever a word has a lexical as well as a phrasal tone like this, the two tones do not form a plateau but instead there is a sequence HLH, with the second H a little lower than the first.[14]

Phrasal tones tend to be less prominent than lexical tones and often in a sentence if a word with lexical tone is substituted for one with a phrasal tone, the pitch will be higher.

In this article, to distinguish them from lexical and grammatical tones, phrasal tones will be underlined.

Words containing HLL

Normally a high tone in a Luganda word is followed by one low tone (which may be the second half of a syllable with falling tone or the whole of the next syllable) after which phrasal tones are added. However, there are certain words in which a high tone is followed not by one low tone but by two or even three low tones before a phrasal tone is added:

The existence of such words greatly complicates the description of Luganda tones and has important implications for theoretical accounts of the language.[16]

Intonational tones

As well as the types of tone mentioned above, there are also intonational tones such as those which distinguish a question from a statement. For example, if a toneless word asks a yes-no question, it has high tones except the last syllable, which is low:

A question like the following has a rise-and-fall on the last vowel:

Another type of intonational tone is an upglide sometimes heard just before a pause mid-sentence. (It is referred to by Stevick as 'comma intonation'.)[18]

One way in which tones are not used in Luganda, however, is for focus or emphasis. As Crabtree says, 'The tone in Luganda is level, therefore it is impossible to emphasize as in English.'

Instead he lists some other ways in which words can be emphasised in Luganda, such as placing the important word first, omitting an initial vowel where it would normally be added,[19] using a relative construction (e.g. 'books are what I want'), using a negative construction (e.g. 'what I want, is it not books?') and others.[20]

Downdrift

Lexical tone downdrift

The usual pattern when two words have lexical or grammatical high tone (unless the two tones are in the same word, as in Kámpálâ) is for the second tone to be a little lower than the first, with the syllables in between a little lower than the high tones, making a dip:

There is also usually a downstep if the first word ends in a lexical tone and the second word begins with one:

The falling tone in balugû 'yams' changes to a high tone in this context, but there is still a downstep just as if the L part of the HL was still audible.

There is always downdrift when a phrasal tone follows a lexical one:

Phrasal tone downdrift

A phrasal tone is usually followed by a plateau. Nonetheless, there are a few kinds of phrases where downdrift is found instead. One of these is when a noun is followed by the pronominal words banó 'these', abó 'the aforesaid', bonnâ 'all', or yekkâ 'alone' (or their equivalents in other noun classes), e.g.[24]

However, there is plateauing before demonstrative adjectives of the -li type:

Two other contexts where there is downdrift after a phrasal tone word are before nga 'when, if, as' and before nti meaning 'that':[24][25]

(The word nga in this context is toneless, but before a noun it has a tone: ngá sukkáali 'like sugar'.[26] It also has a tone when it means 'how...!': ngá wano bulúńgi! 'how beautiful it is here!'[17])

There is also a downstep after a personal pronoun in phrases like the following:

In phrases like all of the above, HLL words like báányumá 'they talked' or akagáalí 'bicycle' have a phrasal tone on the final syllable in the same way as they do at the end of a sentence or when pronounced in isolation.

Plateauing

Lexical tone plateauing

As noted above, the usual pattern with words containing lexical tones is for each word in a series to be a little lower in pitch than the one before. However, there are some circumstances when two lexical tones will be on the same level and make a plateau.[29]

Phrases with 'of'

Typical of such phrases are those containing the word -á 'of', which forms a plateau not only with the preceding word but also with the following one, for example:

The plateau is shown here by underlining.

If the second word is toneless, however, the plateau is made only with the preceding word:

Verb + Location

Another kind of phrase which often has plateauing is 'verb + location', for example:

Sometimes there can be a slight dip in this kind of phrase, e.g.

But even here the three underlying high tones are on the same pitch and do not drift downwards.

However, there is usually no plateauing in this type of phrase when the verb is relative:

There is also no plateauing when the verb is negative:

There can also be no plateauing when a word with phrasal tone follows a lexical tone:

'And'

Another situation where plateauing will follow a lexical tone is after the word ná or né 'and':

But as usually happens when a toneless noun follows, there is no plateau if the noun after ná has only phrasal tones:

Note that né is toneless in phrases like the following, when it is followed by a 'narrative tense' verb (a 'narrative tense' verb is a form of relative clause verb without its initial vowel, used after ne):

A plateau is also found after words like álná 'they have' (literally 'they are with') when positive, but not when negative:

Verb + time

A plateau is heard before words like jjó 'yesterday', lulí 'the day before yesterday', and ddí 'when?' in these sentences:[37]

But there is no plateau if the time adverb is toneless. Instead the adverb plateaus with the following word:

Phrasal tone plateauing

In contrast to lexical tones, words with a phrasal tone very easily make a plateau with the following word, as the following examples show (the plateaus are indicated by underlining):

The phrasal high tone at the end of words like túgendá 'we are going' will also make a plateau in the same way, for example:

Note that in these examples, it is not the lexical tone of words like túgendá which forms a plateau with the following high tone, but the phrasal tone at the end of the word. So there is first downdrift in túgendá and then a plateau.

In a sentence like the following, in which an HLH word like túgendá is used in a 'verb + location' sentence where the location has a lexical tone, according to Stevick, the plateau in such sentences will start with the lexical tone. However, the speaker on the recordings of the Luganda Basic Course in sentences of this kind makes a plateau starting only with the second tone, so that there is a downstep first then a plateau:

Low tones then high

The third common pattern in Luganda intonation is Low + High. This is only found if the first word is toneless. The following are some circumstances when no phrasal tones are added to a toneless word, and it has low tones throughout.

First, when it is the subject or topic of a sentence (unless it is a personal pronoun like ggwé 'you sg.'):

A toneless word also remains low-toned before a numeral or quantity word (except after a negative verb), e.g.

The word buli 'each' also remains low-toned when followed by another word:

An adverb or a subordinate clause can also form the topic of a sentence and be low-toned, e.g.[21][43]

Falling tones

A high or a low tone may be found on any vowel, but a falling tone is found only on:

When a falling tone occurs on a syllable closed by a geminate, such as in okucôppá 'to become poor', the fall is very slight and hard to hear, though it can be measured instrumentally. The main way of telling that a word like this has a falling tone is that the tone on the following vowel is high.

Morae

One way of explaining these facts is to analyse Luganda words as consisting of morae or moras, that is, speech segments each lasting a certain time. According to this analysis, a short vowel has one mora and a long vowel has two morae. A 'long' consonant such as gg, mb, or ly also has one mora. Thus the third syllable gâ of Abagândá can be said to be long by position, since it has two morae, one belonging to itself and the other 'borrowed from' or 'shared with' the prenasalised consonant which follows. A long syllable can have a falling tone, with the first mora high and the second mora low.

Certain accommodations have to be made to make the model fit. For example, an initial syllable starting with a vowel always counts as one mora, even in words like ensî 'country' where the vowel is long and followed by a prenasalised consonant.[46]

No syllable can have more than two morae.[22] For example, the second syllable of omwéngé 'beer' has only two, despite starting with mw and being followed by a prenasalised consonant.

Final vowels

Final vowels are usually pronounced short, but in some words (including all words with monosyllabic stems) the vowel becomes long before a suffix, for example ensî: kí? 'which country?'.[47][48] Final vowels which can become long are considered to have two morae. Certain other final vowels, such as the final -é of the subjunctive mood, are considered to have one mora.[49]

A final vowel therefore, if it is not toneless, can either have a high tone on the second mora (e.g. emú: 'one') or on the first mora (e.g. mwendâ 'nine'),[50] or on its single mora (muyingiré 'please come in').[10] All three of these, when at the end of a sentence, are pronounced with a falling tone. But in other contexts they have different pronunciations. For example, before the suffix kí 'what?' a tone on the first mora of a bimoraic final vowel will fall (ensî kí? 'what country?')[51] but a tone on the last mora will remain high (tukolé kí? 'what should we do?').[10]

If a word ends in a falling tone, the tone becomes an ordinary high tone in some circumstances. One of these is when it is the subject of a sentence:

Another is before a quantity word:

Although there are now two high tones in adjacent syllables, nonetheless a downstep still occurs just as if the L part of the falling tone were still audible, so that in the above phrase mú is slightly lower in pitch than gú.

Nouns

Luganda nouns tend to fall tonally into certain regular patterns, of which the most common are (a) toneless (b) tone on the second mora from the end (c) tone on the third mora from the end. These three patterns together account for about 83% of nouns in Luganda. Some examples of the commonest patterns are as follows.

Toneless nouns

Judging from the numbers in the word list at the end of the Luganda Basic Course, about one third of all nouns (32%) in Luganda are underlyingly toneless. However, when pronounced in isolation, they will have phrasal tones on all but the first mora (counting en- at the beginning of a word as one mora), as follows:

Penultimate tone

Also very common, about 26% of the words, are nouns with a penultimate tone, that is on the second mora from the end of the word. If the penultimate syllable is long, as in enyáńja 'lake', both moras are high-toned. What all these nouns have in common is that the last vowel cannot take a phrasal tone. Examples are:

Antepenultimate tone

Nouns which have a high tone on the third mora from the end of the word (e.g. akagáali 'bicycle') are also very common, and the various types listed below account for at least 25% of the vocabulary.

When used before a pause, or before a pronominal word like banó 'these' or bonnâ 'all' (see above) these words acquire a phrasal tone on the final syllable:

However, in other contexts no phrasal tone is added, and there is no plateau with the following word:

Contrast the following example, where the phrasal tone of matá 'milk' makes a plateau with the following word.[55]

Some nouns of this type are:

To these can be added a few nouns with the tone on the antepenultimate syllable, which are all marked by Stevick as HLL:

A few nouns (mostly foreign) have a double tone followed by LL:

Falling tone on the final

About 9% of the nouns have a falling tone on the final. The shorter of these nouns (up to three moras) have a single tone:

The longer nouns have a second tone earlier in the word, which links into a plateau:

A few less common nouns have a tone on the penultimate and the final:[57][58]

Other patterns

A very few words (about 2%) have the tone far enough from the end of the word to allow for two phrasal tones following the HL of the lexical tone:

Other patterns are possible, for example Olwókusatú 'Wednesday' (ending in HLLL), but these patterns account for only a small percentage of the nouns.

Variable tone nouns

There are certain words in Luganda which have a high tone on the third mora, and in which the tone shifts to the following mora when the word is used without its initial vowel:[59]

Hyman and Katamba note that the same alternations take place in certain verb tenses:

A similar alternation occurs in numbers 1-5, and the words for 'yours' and 'his', with two differences, one that the tone comes on the second mora, and secondly that with a monosyllabic stem, the tone on the final is not deleted:

A few foreign nouns (mostly from Swahili) are also irregular, in that they have an extra tone in the plural or in the diminutive where the prefix has an extra syllable:[58]

Possessive adjectives

Possessive adjectives in Luganda are of two types, those with two syllables, namely -ange 'my', -affe 'our', -ammwe 'your (pl.)', -aabwe (pronounced [-aawwe]) 'their' and those with one syllable, namely -ô 'your' and -ê 'his, her, its'.

The two-syllable possessives used on their own have an HLL tone: ekkyânge 'my one (e.g. place, book, etc.)',[60] ewâffe 'our home'.[61] However, when they are used with a noun, they become enclitic, and if the noun is HLL this tone goes on the final vowel of the noun, making a plateau with the earlier tone:

If added to a noun with a falling tone on the final, the final tone changes from falling to high:

Otherwise if the noun has penultimate tone, the tone on the final vowel is deleted by Meeussen's rule (HH > HL):

When used with a toneless noun, however, the tone on the final migrates to the third mora of the noun. The tones which follow are all L:

(The above rules are those given in the literature. In practice, however, the reader on the Luganda Basic Course recordings sometimes adds a tone on the final syllable of the noun even where it is theoretically not permitted: ensímbí zaabwe 'their money',[68] emigáátí gyaffe 'our loaves', where the text writes emigáàtì,[69] ekitábó kyange 'my book'.[32])

With a monosyllabic possessive namely -ô 'your' or -ê 'his', the tones are different. The first tone remains in the same place as before, then there is a plateau from the first tone to the end:

But when the noun has a tone on the final syllable, it becomes a high tone, and the tone of -yó is suppressed by Meeussen's rule (HH > HL):

Verbs

High and low-toned verbs

Like many Bantu languages, Luganda has high-toned and low-toned verbs. In the infinitive, low-toned verbs have the usual phrasal tones on all but the first mora:

High-toned verbs (which are about 60% of verbs) have a high tone on the mora immediately following the infinitive prefix oku-. Phrasal tones are added only in the case of longer verbs:

Meeussen's rule (HH > HL)

Verbs in Luganda are particularly affected by a rule known as Meeussen's rule, which is common in many African languages, whereby a sequence of tones HH becomes HL. Similarly HHH becomes HLL and HHHH becomes HLLL. (This rule does not affect nouns in Luganda.)

Thus *bá-lí-lába 'they will see' theoretically has three high tones, one for the prefix bá- 'they', one for the future tense-marker -lí-, and one for the verb-stem itself lába 'see'. However, after the operation of Meeussen's rule, and the addition of a phrasal tone, it changes as follows:[71]

The important point here is that a phrasal tone cannot be added (except on the very last syllable before a pause) to any syllable that formerly had a high tone. Thus in the above word bálilabá the remaining lexical tone on bá is followed not by one low-toned syllable, but by two.

Hyman and Katamba give the following examples to illustrate how a lowered H cannot acquire a phrasal tone or form a plateau:[15]

To make sense of the tones of Luganda verbs therefore, it is necessary to consider not only what tones the verb actually has, but also the underlying tones which it formerly had before the operation of Meeussen's rule.

Tones in tenses

Various elements add a tone to verbs:[72]

Having added these tones, the following rules apply:

(a) A phrasal tone is not added to any syllable of which the tone has been deleted by Meeussen's rule, except at the end of a sentence or before pronominal words such as bonnâ 'all'.
(b) A phrasal tone also does not directly follow the General Future infix -lí- in low-toned verbs, even if the tone of -lí- is deleted.

Relative clause verbs

Relative clause verbs have a different intonation from ordinary verbs in Luganda. They are more commonly used than in English, since as Crabtree pointed out (1902) they are used for emphasis.[73] For example, instead of 'who bought things?' a Luganda-speaker would say 'which are the ones who bought things?'

Similarly, instead of 'he went to Buganda to teach', a Luganda-speaker might say 'what he went to Buganda for is to teach':[75]

An initial vowel is usually added before diphonic subject-prefixes such as bá- (e.g. abágúlâ 'they who buy'), but not before monophonic prefixes such as a-. However, this initial vowel disappears in certain contexts, such as the second example above.

In object clauses, such as the following, a toneless prefix acquires a tone:[76]

But when an object copula is used as in the following sentence, both kinds of prefix lose their tone:

The word gwe, ge, bye etc. itself usually has no tone. However, the rules for such clauses can be complex.[77]

Examples of tenses

In the tables which follow, examples are given of six commonly used tenses, together with the subjunctive mood, with some comments on each. In the tables two verbs are used, -gula 'buy' and -lábá 'see', as examples of low and high-toned verbs respectively.[78]

Present tense

basic relative negative neg. rel.
'he buys' agúláagulâtágúlâatágúlâ
'he sees' alábaalábatálabaatálaba
'they buy' báguláabágúlâ tebágúlâabátágúlâ
'they see' bálabaabálaba tebálabaabátalaba

The underlying tones of the 3rd person plural of the high-toned verb change by Meeussen's rule as follows:

That is, the first two moras of the verb-stem in this tense are underlyingly high. (Compare básesemá 'they vomit'; bátandíká 'they begin'.)

When an object-infix such as -gu- 'it (e.g. bread)' is added, the tones change as follows:

  • *bá-gu-lábá > bágúlába 'they see it'

The negative and relative versions of this tense all have a grammatical tone on the final vowel, which in fact has two moras and is underlyingly *-aá. In a two-mora high-toned verb, this final tone disappears by Meeussen's rule, but it reappears and makes a plateau when the verb-stem has three moras or more:

  • tebálaba 'they do not see' (HHHH > HLL)
  • tebáléétâ 'they do not bring' (HHLH > HHH)

When the irregular verb -li 'is (in a certain location)' is used in a relative clause, a high tone is placed on the final vowel when the prefix is toneless. But when the prefix has a tone, the tone on the final is deleted by Meeussen's rule. The tone therefore varies according to whether the prefix is monophonic or diphonic:

  • alí 'he is' - alí 'who is'
  • báli 'they are' - abáli 'who are'

The two words alí and alí, although both end in high tones, are pronounced differently in contexts such as the following, where the tone of alí is higher and does not make a plateau:[33]

  • alí mú Búgáńda 'he is in Buganda'
  • alí mu Bugáńda 'who is in Buganda'

Perfect tense

basic relative negative neg. rel.
'he has bought' aguzêaguzêtágúzêatágúzê
'he has seen' alábyealábyêtálábyêatálábyê
'they have bought' bágúzêabágúzêtebágúzêabátágúzê
'they have seen' bálabyeabálábyêtebálábyêabátálábyê

The Perfect tense uses a different stem from the Present (e.g. -guzê instead of -gula 'buy'), and there is an underlying high tone on the ending. In longer (3-mora) low-toned verbs, such as -genda 'go' or -kweka 'hide (something)', the final tone moves to the penultimate syllable in the basic form:

  • agéńze 'she has gone' (not *agenzê as one might expect)

All the forms of this tense have a tone on the final vowel, but the basic form is different from the negative and relative. In high-toned verbs, Meeussen's rule applies in the basic form (e.g. bálabye 'they have seen'), but in the negative and relative forms there is a plateau instead (tebálábyê they have not seen'). Another example, using the 1st person negative marker sí-, which keeps its own tone, is the following:

  • ntégedde 'I have understood' vs. sítégéddê 'I have not understood'[79]

Near Past tense

basic relative negative neg. rel.
'he bought (today)' yágúzêeyágúzêteyáguzeatááguze
'he saw' yálábyêeyálábyêteyálabyeatáálabye
'they bought' báágúzêabáágúzêtebááguzeabátááguze
'they saw' báálábyêabáálábyêtebáálabyeabátáálabye

The Near Past tense uses the same verb-stem as the Perfect tense but with the tense marker -á-. The subject prefixes change to yá- 'he' and báá- 'they'. The final vowel once again is -ê.

In low-toned verbs the subject prefix makes a plateau with the grammatical tone on the final vowel:

  • yá-gúzê 'he bought (today)' (from okúgúlá 'to buy')

In longer low-toned verbs in this tense the final tone moves to the second mora of the penultimate syllable:[80]

  • yákẃése 'he hid (today)' (from okúkwéká 'to hide something')

In high-toned verbs in this tense there is always a plateau even in the basic form of the verb (in this it differs from the Perfect tense above). Contrast:

  • bálabye 'he has seen' (from okulába 'to see')
  • báá-lábyê 'he saw (today)'

Far Past tense

basic relative negative neg. rel.
'he bought' yagúlaeyagúlateyagúlaatáágula
'he saw' yalábaeyalábateyalábaatáálaba
'they bought' báágulaabáágulatebáágulaabátáágula
'they saw' báálabaabáálabatebáálabaabátáálaba

The tense-infix of this tense is a, which puts a tone on the syllable which follows it.

Although the forms in the table above do not appear to have a high tone on the final, in fact there is an underlying high tone, which reappears and makes a plateau in forms like the following:

  • ya-gú-kwékâ 'he hid it'

Another indication that there is an underlying high tone on the final vowel is the fact that forms like báágula 'they bought' do not add a phrasal tone on the final syllable (except before a pause or before a pronominal word like bonnâ 'all').

Near Future tense

basic relative negative neg. rel.
'he will buy (today)' anáagúláanáagúlâtáágúlêatáágúlê
'he will see' anáálábaanáálábatáálábeatáálábe
'they will buy' bánaagúláabánáágúlâtebáágúlêabátáágúlê
'they will see' bánáálábaabánáálábatebáálábeabátáágúlábe

The Near Future tense has a tense-marker -ná-a-. In the relative and negative forms, there is an (underlying) grammatical tone on the final vowel. In the negative of this tense, the final vowel changes to -e.

In the second person singular -ná-a- becomes nó-o-:[81]

  • *o-ná-a-lyâ > onóolyâ 'you (sg.) will eat'

General Future tense

basic relative negative neg. rel.
'he will buy' alíguláalígúlâtáliguláatáligulá
'he will see' alílabá (?)alílabatálilabaatálilaba
'they will buy' báliguláabálígúlâtebáliguláabátaligulá
'they will see' bálilabáabálilabatebálilabáabátalilabá

This tense has a tone on the tense-marker -lí-. The tone of this disappears by Meeussen's rule after a high-toned subject prefix. A peculiarity of this tense is that with a low-toned verb, the syllable after -lí- cannot bear a phrasal tone, even when the tone of -lí- itself is deleted by Meeussen's rule.

The forms given above differ from those given by Stevick,[82] who states that in this tense as in the Present the first two moras of a high-toned verb stem have underlying tone. However, the examples given by Hyman and Katamba (e.g. báliwulírá 'they will hear')[71] imply that only the first mora of a high-toned verb has an underlying tone in this tense. Contrast the Present tense example below, in which both syllables of -laba are low, with the Future tense, where only the second syllable has a phrasal tone:

  • bálaba omúgáátí 'they see bread'[83]
  • bálilabá ébíkópo 'they will see cups'[84]

Subjunctive mood

  • agulê 'he should buy'
  • alabê 'he should see'
  • bagulê 'they should buy'
  • balabê 'they should see'

The subjunctive mood has just a single tone on the final vowel, which causes all earlier tones in the verb to be deleted. Before a pause, this tone becomes a falling tone, but before kí? 'what?', it remains high:[10]

  • muyingirê 'please come in, you should come in'
  • tukolé kí? 'what should we do?'

Contrast the following, where the final vowel has a falling tone and two moras:[46]

  • ensî kí? 'what country?'

The subjunctive has no relative clause or negative form, but a negative may be made by using the subjunctive of the verb okúlémá 'to fail' plus the infinitive.[85]

  • balemé okuyîngírá 'they should not come in'[86]

References

  1. 1 2 Luganda Basic Course, p.xiii.
  2. ↑ Hyman & Katamba (1993), p.56.
  3. ↑ See Hyman & Katamba (1993) for an overview.
  4. 1 2 3 Luganda Basic Course, p.105.
  5. ↑ For the term see Hyman & Katamba (1993), p.44.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 Luganda Basic Course, p.26.
  7. ↑ Luganda Basic Course, p.138.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 Luganda Basic Course, p.103.
  9. ↑ Luganda Pretraining Program, p.88.
  10. 1 2 3 4 Luganda Basic Course, p.182.
  11. 1 2 3 Luganda Basic Course, p.29.
  12. ↑ Luganda Pretraining Program, p.82.
  13. ↑ Luganda Basic Course, p.12.
  14. ↑ Luganda Pretraining Program, p.147.
  15. 1 2 Hyman & Katamba (1993), p.45.
  16. ↑ Hyman & Katamba (1993), p.36.
  17. 1 2 3 4 Luganda Basic Course, p.242.
  18. 1 2 Luganda Basic Course, p.xxiii.
  19. ↑ Hyman & Katamba (2010), p.76.
  20. ↑ Crabtree (1902), p.144-5.
  21. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Luganda Basic Course, p.xviii.
  22. 1 2 Luganda Basic Course, p.xi.
  23. 1 2 3 4 5 Luganda Basic Course, p.xxii.
  24. 1 2 3 Luganda Basic Course, p.xx.
  25. ↑ See also Hyman & Katamba (2010), p.94, 96.
  26. 1 2 3 Luganda Basic Course, p.xvii.
  27. ↑ Luganda Basic Course, p.73.
  28. ↑ Luganda Basic Course, p.3.
  29. ↑ Hyman & Katamba (1993), p.44.
  30. 1 2 Luganda Basic Course, p.xix.
  31. 1 2 Luganda Basic Course, p.167.
  32. 1 2 Luganda Basic Course, p.168.
  33. 1 2 Luganda Basic Course, p.219.
  34. ↑ Luganda Basic Course, p.166.
  35. ↑ Luganda Basic Course, p.118.
  36. ↑ Luganda Basic Course, p.232.
  37. ↑ Luganda Basic Course, p.144.
  38. ↑ Luganda Basic Course, p.16.
  39. ↑ Luganda Pretraining Program, p.193.
  40. ↑ Luganda Basic Course, p.136; cf.p.87, 88.
  41. ↑ Luganda Basic Course, p.30.
  42. ↑ Luganda Basic Course, p.156.
  43. ↑ See Hyman & Katamba (2010), p.84, for further examples.
  44. ↑ Luganda Basic Course, p.331.
  45. 1 2 Dutcher & Paster (2008), p.127
  46. 1 2 3 Luganda Basic Course, p.xiv.
  47. ↑ Hyman & Katamba (1993), p.51.
  48. ↑ Hyman & Katamba (1990).
  49. ↑ Luganda Basic Course, p.183.
  50. ↑ Luganda Basic Course, p.67.
  51. ↑ Luganda Basic Course, p.136.
  52. ↑ Luganda Basic Course, p.20.
  53. ↑ Luganda Basic Course, p.169.
  54. ↑ Luganda Basic Course, p.145.
  55. 1 2 Luganda Basic Course, p.141.
  56. ↑ Luganda Basic Course, p.292.
  57. ↑ Luganda Basic Course, p. xvi.
  58. 1 2 Hyman & Katamba (1993), p.62.
  59. ↑ Hyman & Katamba (1993), p.58.
  60. 1 2 3 Luganda Basic Course, p.172.
  61. ↑ Luganda Basic Course, p.80.
  62. 1 2 Luganda Basic Course, p.2-3.
  63. 1 2 Luganda Basic Course, p.163.
  64. 1 2 3 Luganda Basic Course, p.157.
  65. ↑ Luganda Basic Course, p.56
  66. 1 2 Luganda Basic Course, p.184.
  67. 1 2 Hyman & Katamba (1993), p.49.
  68. ↑ Luganda Basic Course, p.186.
  69. ↑ Luganda Basic Course, p.185, cf.p.168.
  70. 1 2 Luganda Basic Course, p.56.
  71. 1 2 Hyman & Katamba (1993), pp.36, 45.
  72. ↑ Luganda Basic Course, p.xiv ff.
  73. ↑ Crabtree (1902), p.145.
  74. ↑ Luganda Basic Course, p.240.
  75. ↑ Luganda Basic Course, p.188.
  76. ↑ Luganda Basic Course, p.xxi.
  77. ↑ See Hyman & Katamba (2010), pp.87ff.
  78. ↑ Luganda Basic Course, pp.xxv-xxxv.
  79. ↑ Luganda Basic Course, p.15.
  80. ↑ Luganda Basic Course, p.xxvii.
  81. ↑ Luganda Basic Course, p.259.
  82. ↑ Luganda Basic Course, p.xxxiv.
  83. ↑ Luganda Basic Course, p.xxxi.
  84. ↑ Hyman & Katamba 1993, p.45
  85. ↑ Luganda Basic Course, p.254.
  86. ↑ Luganda Basic Course, p.252.

Bibliography

  • Crabtree, William Arthur (1902). Elements of Luganda Grammar: Together With Exercises and Vocabulary. Reprint. London: Forgotten Books, 2013.
  • Dutcher, Katharine & Mary Paster (2008), "Contour Tone Distribution in Luganda" Proceedings of the 27th West Coast Conference on Formal Linguistics, ed. Natasha Abner and Jason Bishop, 123-131. Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project.
  • Hyman, Larry M. & Francis X. Katamba (1990). "Final vowel shortening in Luganda". Studies in African Linguistics 21, 1-59.
  • Hyman, Larry M. & Francis X. Katamba (1993). "A new approach to tone in Luganda", in Language. 69. 1. pp. 33–67.
  • Hyman, Larry M. & Francis X. Katamba (2010). "Tone, syntax, and prosodic domains in Luganda". ZAS Papers in Linguistics 53, pp. 69–98.
  • Kamoga, F.K. & Stevick, E.W. (1968). Luganda Basic Course. Foreign Service Institute, Washington. Sound files of this course are available free on the Internet.
  • Kamoga, F.K & Stevick, E.W. (1968). Luganda Pretraining Program. Foreign Service Institute, Washington.
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