Majdanek trials

Majdanek trials
Former SS-Obersturmbannfuehrer Anton Thernes (standing, left) in front of a penal court on trial for crimes committed at Majdanek, 1944, Lublin, Poland
Submitted	November 27, 1944
Decided	June 30, 1981, Düsseldorf

The case of the Majdanek death camp

Majdanek concentration camp (June 24, 1944) from the collections of the Majdanek Museum, lower half: the barracks under deconstruction; in the upper half, functioning barracks

Preserved original ovens in the second Crematorium at Majdanek, built in 1943 by Heinrich Kori.^[1]

Original gas chamber with visible Zyklon B blue stain on the back wall, permanently burned into the cement

The Majdanek trials were a series of consecutive war-crime trials held in Poland and in Germany after World War II, constituting the overall longest Nazi war crimes trial in history spanning over 30 years.^[2] The first judicial trial of Majdanek extermination camp officials took place from November 27, 1944, to December 2, 1944, in Lublin, Poland.^[3]^[4] The last one, held at the District Court of Düsseldorf began on November 26, 1975, and concluded on June 30, 1981. It was Germany's longest and most expensive trial, lasting 474 sessions.^[5]^[6]

A number of former high ranking SS men, camp officials, camp guards, and SS staff were arraigned before the courts on charges of war crimes and crimes against humanity committed at Majdanek in the period between October 1, 1941, and July 22, 1944. Notably, only 170 Nazis who served at Majdanek had been prosecuted at all, of the 1,037 camp personnel known by name. Half of the defendants charged by the West German justice system were set free after complaining of aches and pains in detention, acquitted of killing. By contrast, those tried earlier by Poland were usually found guilty. During the 34 months of camp operation, more than 79,000 people were murdered at Majdanek main camp alone (59,000 of them Polish Jews) and between 95,000 and 130,000 people in the entire Majdanek, system including several subcamps.^[7] Some 18,000 Jews were killed at Majdanek on November 3, 1943, during the largest single-day, single-camp massacre of the Holocaust,^[6] named Harvest Festival (totalling 43,000 with 2 subcamps).^[8]

Notably, two KL Majdanek concentration camp commandants were put on trial by the SS themselves in the course of the camp operation partly because of what Majdanek was initially, merely a storage depot for gold, money and furs stolen from trainloads of Holocaust victims at death factories in Belzec, Sobibor, and Treblinka.^[9] Both SS men were charged with wholesale stealing from the Third Reich to become rich. Karl-Otto Koch (serving at Majdanek from July 1941 till August 24, 1942) was executed by firing squad on April 5, 1945; Hermann Florstedt, the third chief of Majdanek (from October 1942 on) was executed by the SS on April 15, 1945.^[10]

First Majdanek trial

Retreating Germans did not have time to destroy the facility. It remained the best preserved example of an Holocaust death camp in history, with intact gas chambers and crematoria.^[11] The advancing Soviets were shocked into disbelief after discovering it, and initially overestimated the total number of victims.^[12]

A group of six members of Majdanek personnel – who had not managed to escape – were arraigned before the Soviet-Polish Special Criminal Court immediately following the camp's liberation of July 23, 1944. After the trial, and deliberations which lasted from November 27, 1944 to December 2, 1944 all accused were found guilty of war crimes, crimes against humanity and genocide, and sentenced to death by hanging.^[6]^[11] They included SS-Obersturmführer Anton Thernes, SS-Hauptsturmführer Wilhelm Gerstenmeier, SS-Oberscharführer Hermann Vögel, Kapo Edmund Pohlmann, SS-Rottenführer Theodor Schöllen and Kapo Heinrich Stalp,^[13] all of whom were executed by hanging on December 3, 1944 except for Pohlmann, who had committed suicide the night before.^[14]

Second Majdanek trial (1946–1948)

The series of trials which took place between 1946 and 1948 in Poland – usually referred to as the Second trial of Majdanek – consisted of trials of many kinds. Some 95 SS-men, mostly guards (including those apprehended hiding in postwar Germany), were charged with war crimes and crimes against humanity. Seven of the defendants were given the death penalty. The most prominent of them was Elsa Ehrich, Oberaufseherin of the women and children camp division (liquidated in spring of 1944). She was responsible for the selections to gas chambers. Ehrich was found guilty of all charges, and hanged in July 1948. Apparently, Ehrich made an attempt to launch a Nazi brothel in 1943, but the project was abandoned before fruition after one of her slave sex-workers was diagnozed with typhus.^[15]

Most other SS men were sentenced from 2 to 12 years' imprisonment.^[16] Some of the more prominent defendants in the 1946–1948 series of trials included over 60 SS-Schütze camp guards. The multiple proceedings were held in Lublin, as well as in Radom and Świdnica (1947), Kraków, Wadowice, and Toruń (1948) and in Warsaw (1948), where the last appellate court case of Jacob Gemmel took place in November 1950.^[10]

#	Defendant ^[10]	Born	Rank	Function	Sentence
1	Elsa Ehrich	8.03.1914	Oberaufseherin	Senior Overseer	death by hanging (carried out, 26.10.1948)
2	Friedrich Gebhardt	26.02.1899	SS-Unterscharf.	Camp guard	death by hanging (carried out, 15.11.1948)
3	Kurt Möller (Moeller)	11.01.1918	SS-Oberscharf.	Squad leader	death by hanging (carried out, 6.10.1948)
4	Jacob Niessner	19.01.1908	SS-Schütze	Camp guard	death by hanging (carried out, 14.07.1948)
5	Michael Pelger	27.03.1908	SS-Rottenf.	Squad leader	death by hanging (carried out)
6	Peter Reiss	22.02.1901	SS-Sturmmann	Stormtrooper	death by hanging (carried out, 23.06.1948)
7	Franz Söss (Süss)	30.11.1912	SS-Rottenf.	Squad leader	death by hanging (carried out, 20.09.1949)
8	Friedrich Buschbaum	14.09.1904	SS-Schütze	Camp guard	death (commuted to 15 years imprisonment, rel. 31.05.1956)
9	Johann Weiss	24.02.1915	SS-Schütze	Camp guard	death (commuted to 10 years imprisonment)
10	Wilhelm Reinartz	17.03.1910	SS-Unterscharf.	Infirmary	death (commuted to 2 years by reason of terminal illness)
11	Johann Vormittag	5.08.1904	SS-Schütze	Camp guard	life imprisonment (released 11.03.1953)
12	Jacob Gemmel	27.05.1913	SS-Schütze	Camp guard	life (commuted to 12 years imprisonment)
13	Robert Frick	15.10.1918	SS-Unterscharf.	Camp guard	15 years imprisonment (released 2.05.1956)
14	Georg Fleischer	24.11.1911	SS-Schütze	Camp guard	12 years imprisonment (released 2.05.1956)
15	Johann Kessler	28.02.1910	SS-Sturmmann	Stormtrooper	12 years imprisonment (d. 25.02.1950)
16	Hans Kottre (Kotre)	22.08.1912	SS-Sturmmann	Stormtrooper	12 years imprisonment (released 9.5.1956)
17	Andreas Lahner	10.12.1921	SS-Sturmmann	Stormtrooper	12 years imprisonment (released 2.05.1956)
18	Georg Neu	1.08.1921	SS-Schütze	Camp guard	12 years imprisonment (released 9.05.1956)
19	Franz Wirth	8.11.1909	SS-Rottenf.	Camp guard	12 years imprisonment
20	Andreas Buttinger	29.05.1910	SS-Schütze	Camp guard	10 years imprisonment (d. 26.04.1949)
21	Jacob Jost	6.10.1895	SS-Oberscharf.	Camp guard	10 years imprisonment (released 30.04.1956)
22	Martin Löx	7.02.1908	SS-Rottenf.	Camp guard	10 years imprisonment (d. 26.06.1949)
23	Kasper Marksteiner	1.11.1913	SS-Sturmmann	Camp guard	10 years imprisonment (d. 20.06.1949)
24	Hans Aufmuth	18.01.1905	SS-Schütze	Camp guard	8 years imprisonment (released 17.03.1954)
25	Johann Betz	18.12.1906	SS-Sturmmann	Camp guard	8 years imprisonment (released 3.07.1955)
26	Anton Hoffmann	17.09.1910	SS-Sturmmann	Camp guard	8 years imprisonment (released 17.12.1954)
27	Johann Radler	9.09.1909	SS-Schütze	Camp guard	8 years imprisonment (released 1.03.1955)
28	Thomas Radrich	19.10.1912	SS-Rottenf.	Camp guard	8 years imprisonment
29	Johann Setz	26.06.1907	SS-Sturmman	Camp guard	8 years imprisonment (extradited to Germany, 28.02.1955)
30	Michael Bertl	23.06.1909	SS-Sturmmann	Camp guard	7 years imprisonment (released 15.07.1954)
31	Paul Keller	16.10.1910	SS-Sturmmann	Camp guard	7 years imprisonment (released 15.7.1954)
32	Karl Müller	10.03.1907	SS-Sturmmann	Block leader	7 years imprisonment
33	Walter Biernat	28.03.1920	SS-Rottenf.	Camp guard	6 years imprisonment (d. 6.02.1952)
34	Josef Hartmann	22.03.1918	SS-Sturmmann	Camp guard	6 years imprisonment (released 5.1.1954)
35	Hans Georg Hess	17.06.1910	SS-Rottenf.	Camp guard	6 years imprisonment
36	Heinrich Kühn	16.12.1909	SS-Sturmmann	Guard (Auschwitz)	6 years imprisonment (d. 16.04.1951)
37	Franz Vormittag	23.01.1920	SS-Sturmmann	Camp guard	6 years imprisonment
38	Helmut Zach	19.08.1909	SS-Unterscharf.	Camp guard	6 years imprisonment
39	Jacob Dialler	8.12.1913	SS-Sturmmann	Camp guard	5 years imprisonment (released 23.12.1951)
40	Hans Durst	23.11.1909	SS-Rottenf.	Camp guard	5 years imprisonment
41	Franz Kaufmann	23.07.1908	SS-Unterscharf.	Camp guard	5 years imprisonment
42	Paul Kiss	13.07.1902	SS-Sturmmann	Camp guard	5 years imprisonment (d. 26.04.1950)
43	Johann Kubasak	31.12.1909	SS-Rottenf.	Camp guard	5 years imprisonment
44	Johann Lassner	26.07.1909	SS-Schütze	Camp guard	5 years imprisonment
45	Johann Lienert	5.08.1915	SS-Sturmmann	Camp guard	5 years imprisonment (d. 16.06.1949)
46	Stefan Mantsch	24.09.1922	SS-Schütze	Camp guard	5 years imprisonment (released 12.04.1951)
47	Hans Merle	15.05.1914	SS-Schütze	Camp guard	5 years imprisonment (released 2.01.1953)
48	Kurt Erwin Ohnweiler	25.03.1913	SS-Schütze	Camp guard	5 years imprisonment (released 1.3.1952)
49	Michael Thal	16.01.1910	SS-Schütze	Camp guard	5 years imprisonment
50	Jacob Vormittag	8.03.1909	SS-Sturmman	Camp guard	5 years imprisonment
51	Martin Berger	18.01.1910	SS-Rottenf.	Camp guard	4 years imprisonment (d. 15.10.1948)
52	Michael Fleischer	18.08.1912	SS-Rottenf.	Camp guard	4 years imprisonment
53	Franz Habel	31.05.1912	SS-Rottenf.	Camp guard	4 years imprisonment
54	Karl Brückner	5.05.1904	SS-Unterscharf.	Camp guard	4 years imprisonment (released 28.02.1951)
55	Josef Janowitsch	22.08.1910	SS-Sturmmann	Camp guard	4 years imprisonment
56	Johann Günesch	17.05.1913	SS-Schütze	Camp guard	3.5 years imprisonment (extradited to Germany, 9.02.1951)
57	Fritz Frischolz	5.10.1911	SS-Oberscharf.	Camp guard	8 years imprisonment (released 10.03.1955)
58	Michael Gall	22.07.1902	SS-Schütze	Camp guard	3 years imprisonment (extradited to Germany, 15.01.1951)
59	Hans Grabert	31.05.1907	SS-Oberscharf	Administration	3 years imprisonment (extradited to Germany, 16.06.1950)
60	Stefan Mantsch	24.09.1922	SS-Schütze	Camp guard	3 years imprisonment (released 12.4.1951)
61	Josef Moos	24.01.1904	SS-Rottenf.	Infirmary (selections)	3 years imprisonment (d. 20.04.1950)
62	Konrad Anacker	13.02.1892	SS-Schütze	Camp guard	3 years imprisonment (released 26.06.1950)
63	Wilhelm Petrak	14.02.1909	SS-Sturmmann	Camp guard	8 years (d. 28.07.1948 of disease after 2 years)

Third Majdanek trial

At the Third Majdanek Trial held between November 26, 1975 and June 30, 1981 before a West German Court at Düsseldorf sixteen defendants were arraigned. Five were cleared of all charges, two released due to ill health, one died of old age, and eight were found guilty. They were sentenced to 3 to 12 years imprisonment.^[17] The 3rd Majdanek trial was preceded by the Treblinka Trials also at Düsseldorf in 1964 and 1970.^[18] The Majdanek trial lasted for six years, and concluded on June 30, 1981. There were insufficient grounds to lay charges against other suspects, according to prosecution (many of the key witnesses have died).^[5]^[19]

Notably, the Camp deputy commandant Arnold Strippel implicated in the torture and killing of many dozens of prisoners (including 42 Soviet POWs in July 1942... a disturbingly small number considering the camp's overall death count) received a nominal three-and-a-half year sentence. He also received 121,500 Deutsche Mark reimbursement for the loss of earnings and his social security contributions, which made him a wealthy man. He used this monetary downpour to purchase a glitzy condominium in Frankfurt, which he occupied until his death.^[20]

#	Defendant	Born	Rank	Function	Sentence
1	Alice Orlowski	30.09.1908	SS Aufseherin	Camp overseer	died of old age during the trial
2	Hermine Braunsteiner	16.07.1919	Rapportführer	Female camp deputy	3 years (Vienna), life imprisonment (Düsseldorf)
3	Hildegard Lachert	19.03.1920	Aufseherin	Camp overseer	12 years imprisonment
4	Hermann Hackmann	11.11.1913	SS-Hauptst.	Camp commandant	10 years imprisonment
5	Emil Laurich	21.05.1921	SS-Rottenf.	Ideology	8 years imprisonment
6	Heinz Villain	1.02.1921	SS-Unterscharf.	Field commandant	6 years imprisonment
7	Fritz-Heinrich Petrick	22.01.1913	SS-Oberscharf.	Camp guard	4 years imprisonment
8	Arnold Strippel	2.06.1911	SS-Obersturm.	Camp director	3.5 years imprisonment
9	Thomas Ellwanger	3.03.1917	SS-Unterscharf.	Camp guard	3 years imprisonment
10	Wilhelm Reinartz	17.03.1910	SS-Unterscharf.	Infirmary (selections)	released due to illness
11	Joanna (Johanna) Zelle		SS-Gefolge	Camp guard	released due to illness
12	Heinrich Schmidt	27.03.1912	SS-Hauptsturmf.	Medic (selections)	acquitted and released
13	Charlotte Mayer	7.02.1918		Maintenance	acquitted and released
14	Rosy Suess or (Rosa) Süss	16.09.1920		Maintenance	acquitted and released
15	Heinrich Groffmann		SS-Rottenf.	Field commandant	acquitted and released
16	Hermine Boettcher-Brueckner	26.04.1918		Maintenance	acquitted and released

Post 1981 Majdanek War Crimes Trials

In 1989 Karl-Friedrich Höcker was tried and sentenced for his actions in Majdanek.

Notes and references

↑ "Crematorium at Majdanek". Jewish Virtual Library. 2013. Retrieved 2013-04-15.
↑ Reuter (Jun 27, 1981). "Longest war crimes trial ends". The Glasgow Herald. Retrieved 2013-04-16.
↑ Jean-michel Frodon (2010). "Majdanek Trial". Cinema and the Shoah. SUNY Press. pp. 249–. ISBN 1438430280. Retrieved 2013-04-13.
↑ "Majdanek Concentration Camp". Majdanek, Poland. July 21, 2009. Retrieved 2013-04-13.
1 2 "Once Upon a Time in War". Majdanek trial in West Germany. A Photographic Retrospect. 2012. Retrieved 2013-04-13.
1 2 3 USHMM (May 11, 2012). "Soviet forces liberate Majdanek". Lublin/Majdanek: Chronology. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Washington, D.C. Retrieved 2013-04-13.
↑ Reszka, Paweł (2005-12-23). "Majdanek Victims Enumerated. Changes in the history textbooks?". Gazeta Wyborcza. Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum. Retrieved 2010-04-13.
↑ Jennifer Rosenberg. "Aktion Erntefest". 20th Century History. About.com Education. Retrieved 2013-04-16.
↑ Staff Writer (2006). "Lublin/Majdanek Concentration Camp: Overview". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. ushmm.org. Retrieved 2013-04-13.
1 2 3 "Procesy zbrodniarzy (Trials of war criminals) 1946–1948". Wykaz sądzonych członków załogi KL Lublin/Majdanek. KL Lublin. Retrieved 2013-04-14.
1 2 "Majdanek" (PDF). Majdanek concentration camp. Yad Vashem. 2007. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 27, 2007. Retrieved 2013-04-14.
↑ "Inside Majdanek". Nazi concentration camps. Jewish Virtual Library. 2013. Retrieved 2013-04-14.
↑ Marcus Wendel (Aug 8, 2007). "SS personnel serving at Majdanek". Camp personnel. Axis History. Retrieved 2013-04-14.
↑ JVL (2013). "Majdanek Trial". Majdanek extermination camp. Jewish Virtual Library.org. Retrieved 2013-04-13.
↑ "SS-Oberaufseherinn Elsa Ehrich". Frauenkonzetrationslager. KL Lublin. 2004–2013. Retrieved 2013-04-14.
↑ PMM (2006). "XX. Akta procesowe". Archiwum (in Polish). Państwowe Muzeum na Majdanku. Retrieved 2013-04-13.
↑ JVL (2013). "Third Majdanek Trial". Majdanek extermination camp. Jewish Virtual Library.org. Retrieved 2013-04-13.
↑ Christian Hofmann. "Die Treblinka-Prozesse (The Treblinka Trials)". Shoa.de (in German). Arbeitskreis Shoa.de e.V.
↑ Landgericht Düsseldorf spricht Urteile im Majdanek-Prozeß Landtag Intern vom 26. Juni 2001 (Landtag Nordrhein-Westfalen). (German)
↑ Thomas Schattner. "Strippels Blutspur durch Europas KZs – Sie begann vor 70 Jahren hier in Unshausen, im heutigen Schwalm-Eder-Kreis" (PDF file, direct download 78.2 KB). Archiv und Ausstellung der Universität Kassel (in German). Gedenkstätte Breitenau. pp. 57–62. Retrieved 2013-04-26.

Media related to KZ Majdanek at Wikimedia Commons Media related to Majdanek concentration camp at Wikimedia Commons

The Holocaust in Poland

Main article: The Holocaust
Related articles by country: Belarus; Belgium; Croatia; Denmark; Estonia; France; Latvia; Lithuania; Norway; Russia; Ukraine

Camps, ghettos and operations

Camps

Extermination	Auschwitz-Birkenau Chełmno Majdanek Operation Reinhard death camps Bełżec Sobibór Treblinka

Concentration	Kraków-Płaszów Potulice Soldau Stutthof Szebnie Trawniki Warsaw

Mass shootings

Ghettos

Other atrocities

Perpetrators, participants, organizations, and collaborators

Major perpetrators

Organizers	Josef Bühler Eichmann Eicke Ludwig Fischer Hans Frank Globocnik Glücks Greiser Himmler Hermann Höfle Fritz Katzmann Wilhelm Koppe Friedrich-Wilhelm Krüger Kutschera Erwin Lambert Ernst Lerch Oswald Pohl Reinefarth Scherner Seyss-Inquart · Sporrenberg Streckenbach Thomalla Otto Wächter Wisliceny

Camp command	Aumeier Baer Boger Braunsteiner Eberl Eupen Kurt Franz Karl Frenzel Karl Fritzsch Göth Grabner Hartjenstein Hering Höss Hössler Josef Kramer Liebehenschel Mandel Matthes Michel Möckel Mulka Johann Niemann Oberhauser Reichleitner Heinrich Schwarz Stangl Gustav Wagner Christian Wirth

Gas chamber executioners	Erich Bauer Bolender Hackenholt Klehr Hans Koch Herbert Lange Theuer

Physicians	von Bodmann Clauberg Gebhardt Fritz Klein Mengele Horst Schumann Trzebinski Eduard Wirths

Ghetto command	Auerswald Biebow Blösche Bürkl Konrad Palfinger von Sammern-Frankenegg Stroop

Einsatzgruppen	Wolfgang Birkner Blobel Felix Landau Schaper Schöngarth von Woyrsch

Personnel

Camp guards	Juana Bormann Danz Demjanjuk Margot Dreschel Kurt Gerstein Grese Höcker Kaduk Kollmer Muhsfeldt Orlowski Volkenrath

By camp	Sobibór Treblinka

Organizations

Collaborators

Jewish	Group 13 Kapo Żagiew

Estonian, Latvian, Lithuanian, Belarusian and Ukrainian	Schutzmannschaft

Other nationalities	Arajs Kommando Ukrainian Auxiliary Police Ukrainian collaboration Lithuanian Security Police Trawniki Ypatingasis būrys Pieter Menten

Resistance: Judenrat, victims, documentation and technical

Organizations

Uprisings

Leaders

Judenrat

Victim lists

Ghettos	Kraków Łódź Lvov (Lwów) Warsaw

Camps	Auschwitz Bełżec Gross-Rosen Izbica Majdanek Sobibór Soldau Stutthof Trawniki Treblinka

Documentation

Nazi sources	Auschwitz Album Frank Memorandum Höcker Album Höfle Telegram Katzmann Report Korherr Report Nisko Plan Posen speeches Special Prosecution Book-Poland Stroop Report Wannsee Conference

Witness accounts	Graebe affidavit Gerstein Report Vrba-Wetzler report Witold's report

Concealment	Sonderaktion 1005

Technical and logistics

Aftermath, trials and commemoration

Aftermath

Trials

West German trials	Frankfurt Auschwitz Trials Treblinka trials

Polish, East German, and Soviet trials	Auschwitz Trial (Poland) Extraordinary (Soviet) State Commission

Memorials

Righteous among the Nations

The Holocaust

By territory	Albania Belarus Belgium Channel Islands Croatia Estonia France Norway Latvia Libya Lithuania Luxembourg Poland Russia Serbia Ukraine

Lists and timelines	Victims of Nazism Holocaust survivors Survivors of Sobibór Victims and survivors of Auschwitz Deportations of French Jews to death camps Books and other resources Films about the Holocaust Nazi concentration camps Nazi ideologues Rescuers of Jews Shtetls depopulated of Jews Treblinka timeline

Camps

Concentration	Bergen-Belsen Bogdanovka Buchenwald Dachau Dora Esterwegen Flossenbürg Gonars Gross-Rosen Herzogenbusch Jadovno Janowska Kaiserwald Kraków-Płaszów Mauthausen-Gusen Neuengamme Rab Ravensbrück Sachsenhausen Salaspils Stutthof Theresienstadt Uckermark Warsaw

Extermination	Auschwitz-Birkenau Bełżec Chełmno Jasenovac Majdanek Maly Trostenets Sajmište Sobibór Treblinka

Transit	be Breendonk Mechelen fr Gurs Drancy it Bolzano Risiera di San Sabba nl Amersfoort Westerbork

Methods	Einsatzgruppen Gas van Gas chamber Extermination through labour Human medical experimentation

Nazi units	SS-Totenkopfverbände Concentration Camps Inspectorate Politische Abteilung Sanitätswesen

Victims

Poland	Białystok Kraków Łódź Lublin Lwów Warsaw

Elsewhere	Budapest Kovno Minsk Riga Vilna

Einsatzgruppen

Organizations	Nazi Party Sturmabteilung (SA) Schutzstaffel (SS) Reichssicherheitshauptamt (RSHA) Verfügungstruppe (VT) Wehrmacht

Collaborators	Ypatingasis būrys Lithuanian Security Police Rollkommando Hamann Arajs Kommando Ukrainian Auxiliary Police Trawnikis Nederlandsche SS Special Brigades

Individuals	Major perpetrators Nazi ideologues

Early elements
Aftermath
Remembrance

Early elements	Nazi racial policy Nazi eugenics Nuremberg Laws Haavara Agreement Madagascar Plan Forced euthanasia (Action T4)

Aftermath	Nuremberg trials Denazification Holocaust survivors Survivor guilt Reparations

Remembrance	Days of remembrance Memorials and museums

Authority control	GND: 4258254-4

This article is issued from Wikipedia - version of the Wednesday, May 04, 2016. The text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share Alike but additional terms may apply for the media files.