Menelik II

Menelik II
Emperor of Ethiopia
Emperor of Ethiopia
Reign 10 March 1889 – 12 December 1913
Coronation 3 November 1889
Predecessor Yohannes IV
Successor Iyasu V (designated but uncrowned Emperor of Ethiopia)
Born (1844-08-17)17 August 1844
Angolalla, Shewa
Died 12 December 1913(1913-12-12) (aged 69)
Burial Ba'eta Le Mariam Monastery
prev. Se'el Bet Kidane Meheret Church
Spouse Taytu Betul
Issue Zewditu I
Shoa ragad
Wossen Seged
House House of Solomon
Father Haile Melekot, King of Shewa
Mother Ijigayehu Adeyamo
Religion Ethiopian Orthodox

Emperor Menelik II GCB, GCMG (Ge'ez: ዳግማዊ ምኒልክ, dagmäwi minilik [nb 1]), baptized as Sahle Maryam (17 August 1844 – 12 December 1913), was Negus[nb 2] of Shewa (1866–89), then Nəgusä Nägäst[nb 3] of Ethiopia from 1889 to his death. At the height of his internal power and external prestige, the process of territorial expansion and creation of the modern empire-state had been completed by 1898, thus restoring the ancient Ethiopian Kingdom to its glory of the Axumite Empire which was one of the four most powerful kingdoms of the ancient world.[1] Ethiopia was transformed under Nəgusä Nägäst Menelik: the major signposts of modernization were put in place.[2] Externally, his victory over the Italian invaders had earned him great fame: following Adwa, recognition of Ethiopia’s independence by external powers was expressed in terms of diplomatic representation at the court of Menelik and delineation of Ethiopia’s boundaries with the adjacent colonies.[1] Menelik expanded his kingdom to the south and east, expanding into Kaffa, Sidama, Wolayta and other kingdoms.[3][4] He is widely called Emiye[5] Menelik in Ethiopia for his forgiving nature and his selfless deeds to the poor.

Biography

Abeto Menelik (Sahle Maryam) was born in Angolalla, near Debre Birhan, Shewa. He was the son of Negus Haile Melekot of Shewa and Woizero[nb 4] Ijigayehu. Woizero Ijigayehu was a lady in the household of Haile Melekot's grandmother, the formidable Woizero Zenebework, widow of Merid Azmatch Wossen Seged, and mother of King Sahle Selassie of Showa. Most sources indicate that while no marriage took place between Haile Melekot and Woizero Ijigayehu, Sahle Selassie ordered his grandson legitimized. Menelik II had been born at Angolala in an Oromo area and had lived his first twelve years with Shewan Oromos with whom he thus had much in common.[6]

Prior to his death in 1855, Negus Haile Melekot named Menelik as successor to the throne of Shewa. Shortly after Haile Melekot died, Menelik was taken prisoner by Nəgusä Nägäst Tewodros II. Following Nəgusä Nägäst Tewodros II's conquest of Shewa, he had young Sahle Maryam transferred to his mountain stronghold of Magdala. Still, Tewodros treated the young prince well. He even offered him the hand of his daughter Altash Tewodros in marriage, which Menelik accepted.

Upon Menelik's imprisonment, his uncle, Haile Mikael, was appointed as Shum[nb 5] of Shewa by Nəgusä Nägäst Tewodros II with the title of Meridazmach[nb 6]. However, Meridazmach Haile Mikael rebelled against Tewodros, resulting in his being replaced by the non-royal Ato[nb 7] Bezabeh as Shum. However, Ato Bezabeh in turn then rebelled against the Emperor and proclaimed himself Negus of Shewa. Although the Shewan royals imprisoned at Magdala had been largely complacent as long as a member of their family ruled over Shewa, this usurpation by a commoner was not palatable to them. They plotted the escape of Menelik from Magdala; with the help of Mohammed Ali and Queen Worqitu of Wollo, he escaped from Magdala the night of 1 July 1865, abandoning his wife, and returned to Shewa. Enraged, Emperor Tewodros slaughtered 29 Oromo hostages then had 12 Amhara notables beaten to death with bamboo rods.[7]

King of Shewa

Bezabeh's attempt to raise an army against Menelik failed miserably; thousands of Shewans rallied to the flag of the son of Negus Haile Melekot and even Bezabeh's own soldiers deserted him for the returning prince. Abeto Menelik entered Ankober and proclaimed himself Negus. While Negus Menelik reclaimed his ancestral Shewan crown, he also laid claim to the Imperial throne, as a direct descendant male line of Nəgusä Nägäst Lebna Dengel. However, he made no overt attempt to assert this claim during this time; Marcus interprets his lack of decisive action not only to Menelik's lack of confidence and experience, but that "he was emotionally incapable of helping to destroy the man who had treated him as a son."[8] Not wishing to take part in the 1868 Expedition to Abyssinia, he allowed his rival Kassai to benefit with gifts of modern weapons and supplies from the British. Afterwards other challenges—a revolt amongst the Wollo to the north, the intrigues of his next wife Baffana to replace him with her choice of ruler, military failures against the Arsi Oromo to the south east—kept Menelik from directly confronting Kassai until after his rival had brought an Abuna from Egypt who crowned him Nəgusä Nägäst Yohannes IV.

Submission to Yohannes

Eventually, Menelik acquiesced to the superior position of Yohannes and, on 20 March 1878, Menelik "approached Yohannes on foot. He was carrying a rock on his neck and his face was down in the traditional form of submission.[9] However, very aware of how precarious his own position was, Yohannes recognized Menelik as Negus of Shewa and gave him numerous presents which included four cannons, several hundred modern Remington rifles, and ammunition for both.[10]

Succession

On 10 March 1889, Emperor Yohannes was killed in a war with Mahdist Sudan during the Battle of Gallabat (Matemma). With his dying breaths, Yohannes declared his natural son, Dejazmach Mengesha Yohannes, as his heir. On 25 March, upon hearing of the death of Yohannes, Negus Menelik immediately proclaimed himself as Nəgusä Nägäst.[11]

The succession now lay between Mengesha Yohannes of Tigray and Menelik of Shewa. Menelik argued that while the family of Yohannes IV claimed descent from King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba through females of the dynasty, his own claim was based on uninterrupted direct male lineage which made the claims of the House of Shewa equal to those of the elder Gondar line of the dynasty. In the end, Menelik was able to obtain the allegiance of a large majority of the Ethiopian nobility. On 3 November 1889, Menelik was consecrated and crowned as Nəgusä Nägäst before a glittering crowd of dignitaries and clergy. He was crowned by Abuna Mattewos, Bishop of Shewa, at the Church of Mary on Mount Entoto.[12]

The newly consecrated and crowned Nəgusä Nägäst Menelik II quickly toured the north in force. He received the submission of the local officials in Lasta, Yejju, Gojjam, Welo, and Begemder.[11]

Menelik, and later his daughter Zauditu, would be the last Ethiopian monarchs who could claim uninterrupted direct male descent from King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba (both Lij Iyasu and Emperor Haile Selassie were in the female line, Iyasu through his mother Shewarega Menelik, and Haile Selassie through his paternal grandmother, Tenagnework Sahle Selassie).

Reign as emperor

Menelik II

In April 1889, while claiming the throne against Mengesha Yohannes, Menelik reached at Wuchale (Uccialli in Italian) in Wollo province a treaty with Italy, ceding the northern province of Eritrea to Italy. Most of the highland area of this province was part of Abyssinian kingdoms for hundreds of years under the title of Medri-Bahri (Land of the Sea), consisting of the districts of Hamasien, Akele-Guzay, and Seraye. It was also referred to as Merab Melash, meaning the "Land Beyond the River". The river was the boundary that separated the two Abysinnian Provinces; Medri-Bahri and Tigrai. Located in the highlands these provinces were part of the empire upto 1889, while two of the ancient coastal cities of Abyssinia i.e. Zeila and Metsewa as well as all the lowland red sea coast areas were taken by Turkey and became part of Habesh Eyalet province (named after "Habeshstan", which the Turks use to call the land) since 1554, following the conquest of Ahmed Gragn which made the empire to retreat to the northern highlands upto mid 19th century.[13][14]

Upon the treaty with Italy, Emperor Menelik II in 1889 stated:

"The territories north of the Merab Melash (modern Eritrea) do not belong to nor are under my rule. I am the Emperor of Abyssinia. The lands referred to as Eritrea is not peopled by Abyssinians, they are Adals, Bejas, and Tigres. Abyssinia will defend her territories but it will not fight for foreign lands of which Eritrea is to my knowledge."[15]

Menelik signed the Treaty of Wuchale with the Italians on May 2, 1889. Controversy soon emerged on the interpretation of article 17 of the treaty. While the Amharic text reads that Menelik could, if he wished, call upon the services of the Italian authorities in his communications with other powers, the Italian version made this obligatory, thereby making Ethiopia in effect a protectorate of Italy.

Tapestry of the Battle of Adwa.

Emperor Menelik denounced it and demanded that the Italian version be changed. Negotiations failed, so Menelik renounced the treaty, leading Italy to declare war and invade from Eritrea. After defeating the Italians at Amba Alagi and Mekele, Menelik inflicted an even greater defeat on them, at Adwa on 1 March 1896, forcing them to capitulate. Afterwards, Menelik returned to Addis Ababa leaving Eritrea as a protectorate of Italy. Menelik is believed to have said:

"leave the Italians to rule Eritrea beyond Merab River" [16]

A treaty was signed at Addis Ababa recognizing the absolute sovereign independence of Ethiopia. In addition, he signed the treaty which recognized Eritrea as a sovereign state of Italy and negotiated that the Merab river is the common border between Eritrea and Ethiopia.[16]

Menelik II can be named as father for modern Ethiopia. He was a Russophile because he thought only Russia could be the main ally of his policy of expansion of Ethiopia by reason of necessity to counteract the British colonial expansion, starting with the war against the British (1868 Expedition to Abyssinia, theft of Kebra Nagast and death of Tewodros II).[17][18]

Portrait of Menelik II.

During the visit of a Russian diplomatic and military mission in 1893, Menelik II concluded a strong alliance with that country. As a result of that alliance, from 1893 to 1913, Russia sponsored the visits of thousands of advisers and volunteers to Ethiopia.[19] Two friendships that evolved from these visits were friendships between Menelik II and Alexander Bulatovich and also between Menelek II and Nikolay Gumilyov the great poet.[17][20][21]

Menelik had in 1898 crushed a rebellion by Ras Mengesha Yohannes (who died in 1906). He directed his efforts thenceforth to the consolidation of his authority, and in a certain degree, to the opening up of his country to western civilization. Menelik’s clemency to Ras Mangasha, whom he compelled to submit and then made hereditary Prince of his native Tigray, was ill repaid by a long series of revolts by that prince. Menelek focused much of his energy on development and modernization of his country after this threat to his throne was firmly ended. He had granted in 1894 a concession for the building of a railway to his capital from the French port of Djibouti but, alarmed by a claim made by France in 1902 to the control of the line in Ethiopian territory, he stopped for four years the extension of the railway beyond Dire Dawa. When in 1906 France, the United Kingdom and Italy came to an agreement on the subject, granting control to a joint venture corporation, Menelek officially reiterated his full sovereign rights over the whole of his empire.

Under his reign, beginning in the 1880s, Menelik set off from the central province of Shoa, to subjugate and incorporate 'the lands and people of the South, East and West into an empire'.[3] During his battles, he made tactical alliance with different ethnic groups and appointed Habte Giyorgis Dinagde as Minister of Defense, who was of mixed Gurage-Oromo ancestry. The people incorporated by Menelik were the people the unarmed southerners. Oromo, Sidama, Gurage, Wolayta and other groups.[4] He began expanding his kingdom to the south and east, expanding into areas that had never been under his rule. But some of the new lands incorporated are claimed to have been under the Aksum Empire before the fall of the Axumite kingdom.[22] Menelik II had Oromo ancestry himself on his mother's side, and also his late father King Haile Melekot's alliance with the Wollo Oromo helped him militarily.[23][24] He achieved most of his conquests with the help of Ras Gobena's Shewan Oromos, who helped Menelik previously during his clashes with Gojjam.[25] It is also important to note that a few years earlier before the rise of Menelik, member of the Yejju Oromo dynasty like Abba Seru Gwangul, Ras Ali I, Ras Aligaz, Ras Gugsa Mursa, Ras Yimam, Ras Marye, Ras Dori and Ras Ali II were the rulers of north Ethiopia while the emperors with Solomonic dynasty were figureheads.[26][27] Similar to nobles of Tigray and Agaw subgroups like Wag, Qwara and Awi these northern Christian Oromo nobles ruled the empire while speaking their language and identifying themselves with their identity.[27][28]

Menelik brought many of the northern rival territories under Shewan dominance through political consensus with the exception of Gojam which made tribute to Shewan Kingdom following it's defeat at the Battle of Embabo.[29] Most of the western and central territories like Jima, Welega and Chebo were administered by chiefs who allied their clan's army with the central government peacefully. Native armed soldiers of Ras Gobana Dacche, Ras (Nigus) Mikael Ali, Sultan Aba Jifar, Kumsa Mereda, Habtegyorgis Dinegde, Balcha Aba Nefso and Jote Tullu were allied to Menelik's Shewan army which campaigned to the south to incorporate more territories.[30][31][32][33][34]

During the conquest of the southern territories, according to Mekuria Bulcha and Mohammed Hasan, Menelik's Army carried out atrocities against civilians and combatants including mutilation, mass killings and large scale slavery.[35][35][36] Some estimates for the number of people killed as a result of the conquest go into the millions.[35][37][38] Large scale atrocities were also committed against the Dizi people and the people of the Kaficho kingdom.[38][39] Though, contrary to these claims, Chris Prouty states that Menelik prohibited Slavery, while it was beyond his capacity to change the mind of his people regarding this age-old practice, that was widely prevalent throughout the country.[40] Some, on the other hand, argue that the establishment of a central government effectively stopped the continuous clan wars, that have been going on for centuries in all parts of the country, thereafter, minimizing the loss of lives, raids, destructions and slavery that usually occur during battles of that era.[41][42][43][44] As for the claim he committed genocide and mutilation so far there is no available documents with varied sources that includes material and written evidences, that is researched with international standard like done in other parts of the world with similar claims. Moreover, the sources used to claim these atrocities were not researched by a team of experts specialized in various fields which also comprised of various ethnic-groups and foreigners. Most of the sources used against Menelik's army regarding mutilation and genocide were not known to Ethiopian or foreign independent historians until the rise of ethnic nationalism in the 1970s. The details and discussions of this particular period in Ethiopian history are heavily politicized, and the views of the facts vary depending on the ethno-political agenda of the sides.

Developments during Menelik's reign

Menelik II was fascinated by modernity, and like Tewodros II before him, had a keen ambition to introduce Western technological and administrative advances into Ethiopia. The Russian support for Ethiopia led to the advent of a Russian Red Cross mission. The Russian mission was a military mission conceived as medical support for the Ethiopian troops. It arrived in Addis Ababa some three months after Menilek's Adwa victory,[45] and then the first hospital was created in Ethiopia. Following the rush by the major powers to establish diplomatic relations following the Ethiopian victory at Adwa, more and more westerners began to travel to Ethiopia looking for trade, farming, hunting and mineral exploration concessions. Menelik II founded the first modern bank in Ethiopia, the Bank of Abyssinia, introduced the first modern postal system, signed the agreement and initiated work that established the Addis Ababa-Djibouti railway with the French, introduced electricity to Addis Ababa, as well as the telephone, telegraph, the motor car and modern plumbing. He attempted unsuccessfully to introduce coinage to replace the Maria Theresa thaler.

According to one persistent tale, Menelik heard about the modern method of executing criminals using electric chairs during the 1890s, and ordered 3 for his kingdom. When the chairs arrived, Menelik learnt they would not work, as Ethiopia did not yet have an electric power industry. Rather than waste his investment, Menelik used one of the chairs as his throne, sending another to his "second" (Lique Mekwas) Abate Ba-Yalew.[46] Recent research, however, has cast significant doubt on this story, and suggested it was invented by a Canadian journalist during the 1930s.[47]

During a particularly devastating famine caused by Rinderpest early in his reign, Menelik personally went out with a hand-held hoe to furrow the fields to show that there was no shame in plowing fields by hand without oxen, something Ethiopian highlanders had been too proud to consider previously. He also forgave taxes during this particularly severe famine.

Later in his reign, Menelik established the first Cabinet of Ministers to help in the administration of the Empire, appointing trusted and widely respected nobles and retainers to the first Ministries. These ministers would remain in place long after his death, serving in their posts through the brief reign of Lij Iyasu and into the reign of Empress Zauditu. They played a key role in deposing Lij Iyasu.

Private life and death

Taytu Betul, the third wife of Menelik.

In 1864, Menelik married Altash Tewodros, whom he divorced in 1865; the marriage produced no children. In 1865, he married Befana Gatchew, whom he divorced in 1882; the marriage produced no children. Finally, in 1883, he married Taytu Betul, who remained his wife until his death. From 1906, for all intents and purposes, Taytu Betul ruled in Menelik's stead during his infirmity. Menelik II and Taytu Betul personally owned 70,000 slaves.[48] Abba Jifar II also is said to have more than 10,000 slaves and allowed his armies to enslave the captives during a battle with all his neighboring clans.[49] This practice was common between various tribes and clans of Ethiopia for thousands of years.[42][43][44] By the mid-1890s, Menelik was actively suppressing the trade, destroying notorious slave market towns and punishing slavers with amputation.[50] Both Tewodros II and Yohannes IV also outlawed slavery but since all tribes were not against slavery and the fact that the country was surrounded on all sides by slave raiders and traders, it was not possible to entirely suppress this practice even by the 20th century.[51]

Woizero Altash Tewodros was a daughter of Emperor Tewodros II and the first wife of Menelik II. She and Menelik were married during the time that Menelik was held captive by Tewodros. The marriage ended when Menelik escaped captivity abandoning her. She was subsequently remarried to Dejazmatch Bariaw Paulos of Adwa.

Woizero Bafena Wolde Michael was married to Menelik for seventeen years from 1865 to 1882. Her brother was Dejazmatch Tewende Belay Wolde Michael. Woizero Bafena was implicated in a plot to overthrow Menelik when he was King of Shewa. She was widely suspected of being secretly in touch with Emperor Yohannes IV in her ambition to replace her husband on the Shewan throne with one of her sons from a previous marriage. With the failure of her plot, Woizero Bafena was separated from Menelik, but Menelik apparently was still deeply attached to her. An attempt at reconciliation failed, but when his relatives and courtiers suggested new young wives to the King, he would sadly say "You ask me to look at these women with the same eyes that once gazed upon Bafena?" Paying tribute both to his ex-wife's great beauty and his own continuing attachment to her.

Empress Taytu Betul was a noblewoman of Imperial blood and a member of one of the leading families of the regions of Semien, Yejju in modern Wollo, and Begemder. Her paternal uncle, Dejazmatch Wube Haile Maryam of Semien, had been the ruler of Tigray and much of northern Ethiopia. She had been married four times previously and exercised considerable influence. Taytu and Menelik were married in a full communion church service and thus fully canonical and insoluble, which Menelik had not had with either of his previous wives. Menelik and Taytu would have no children. Empress Taytu would become Empress consort upon her husband's succession, and would become the most powerful consort of an Ethiopian monarch since Empress Mentewab. She and her uncle Ras wube were two of the most powerful people among descendants of the great Ras Gugsa Mursa. Emperor Yohanes was able to broaden his power base in northern Ethiopia through Taytu's family connections in Begemider, Semien and Yejju and she also served him as his first minister and later as an adviser to Menelik, who also went to the battle of Adwa with her own 5,000 troops.[52][53]

The emperor caricatured by Glick for Vanity Fair, 1897

Previous to his marriage to Taytu Betul, Menelik fathered several "natural" children. Three natural children that Menelik recognized were Woizero Shoaregga Menelik, born 1867,[nb 8] Woizero (later Empress) Zauditu Menelik, born 1876,[nb 9] and Abeto Asfa Wossen Menelik, born 1873.

In 1886, Menelik married ten-year-old Zauditu to Ras Araya Selassie Yohannes, the fifteen-year-old son of Emperor Yohannes IV. In May 1888, Ras Araya Selassie died. Woizero Shoaregga was first married to Dejazmatch Wodajo Gobena, the son of Ras Gobena Dachi. They would have a son, Abeto Wossen Seged Wodajo, but this grandson of Menelik II was eliminated from the succession due to dwarfism. In 1892, twenty-five-year-old Woizero Shoaregga was married for a second time to forty-two-year-old Ras Mikael of Wollo. They had two children, a daughter Woizero Zenebework, and Menelik's eventual successor, Lij[nb 10] Iyasu. Woizero Zenebework Mikael would eventually marry at age twelve, the much older Ras Bezabih Tekle Haymanot of Gojjam, and died in childbirth a year later. Abeto Asfa Wossen Menelik died when he was about fifteen-years-old. Only Shoagarad has present day descendants.

Rumoured natural children of the Emperor include Ras Birru Wolde Gabriel and Dejazmach Kebede Tessema. The latter, in turn, was possibly the natural grandfather of Colonel Mengistu Haile Mariam, the communist leader of the Derg, who eventually deposed the monarchy and assumed power in Ethiopia from 1974 to 1991.

As wife of Menelik Taytu politically married her Yejju and Semien relatives to key Shewan aristocrates like Ras Woldegyorgis Aboye who was Governor of Kaffa, Ras Mekonen who was governor of Harar and Menelik's eldest daughter Zewditu Menlik who became Nigeste Negestat of the empire after the over-through of Lij Iyasu.[54] Taytu's step daughter, Zewditu, was married to her nephew Ras Gugsa wolle who administered Begemider up to the 1930s.[54]

On 27 October 1909, Menelik II suffered a massive stroke and his "mind and spirit died". After that, Menelik was no longer able to reign, and the office was taken over by Empress Taytu.[55] as de facto ruler, until Ras Bitwaddad Tesemma was publicly appointed regent.[56] However, he died within a year, and a council of regency — from which the empress was excluded — was formed in March 1910.

Menelik's mausoleum.[nb 11]

In the early morning hours of 12 December 1913, Nəgusä Nägäst Menelik II died. He was buried quickly without announcement or ceremony[55] at the Se'el Bet Kidane Meheret Church, on the grounds of the Imperial Palace. In 1916 Menelik II was reburied in the specially built church at Ba'eta Le Mariam Monastery of Addis Ababa.

Succession

After the death of Menelik II, the council of regency continued to rule Ethiopia. As described above, Lij Iyasu had been designated successor of Menelik II by Empress Taytu in May 1909. However, Lij Iyasu was never crowned Emperor of Ethiopia, and eventually Empress Zewditu I succeeded Menelik II on the 27 September 1916. She was his oldest daughter.

See also

Notes

Footnotes
  1. ↑ Dagmäwi means "the second".
  2. ↑ King.
  3. ↑ King of Kings.
  4. ↑ Roughly equivalent to Lady.
  5. ↑ Roughly equivalent to Governor.
  6. ↑ Roughly equivalent to Supreme General.
  7. ↑ Equivalent to Sir or Mr.
  8. ↑ Also spelled "Shoaregga" and "Shewa Regga".
  9. ↑ Eventually Empress of Ethiopia.
  10. ↑ Roughly equivalent to Child.
  11. ↑ The crypts of Menilek (center), Taytu Betul (left), and Zauditu (right).
Citations
  1. 1 2 Zewde, Bahru. A history of Ethiopia: 1855-1991. 2nd ed. Eastern African studies. 2001
  2. ↑ Teshale Tibebu, "Ethiopia: Menelik II: Era of", Encyclopedia of African history”, Kevin Shillington (ed.), 2004.
  3. 1 2 John Young (1998). "Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia". Third World Quarterly 19 (2): 192. doi:10.1080/01436599814415. JSTOR 3993156.
  4. 1 2 International Crisis Group, "Ethnic Federalism and its Discontents". Issue 153 of ICG Africa report (4 September 2009) p. 2.
  5. ↑ Emiye in Amharic means "My Mother" affectionately"
  6. ↑ "Ethiopia: A New Political History- Google Books": Richard Greenfield, 1965. p. 97.
  7. ↑ Marcus, Harold G. (1995). The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913. Lawrenceville: Red Sea Press. p. 24f. ISBN 1-56902-010-8.
  8. ↑ Marcus, Menelik II, p. 30.
  9. ↑ Marcus, Menelik II, p. 55
  10. ↑ Marcus, Menelik II, p. 56
  11. 1 2 Mockler, p. 89
  12. ↑ Mockler, p. 90
  13. ↑ Siegbert Uhlig (2005). Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: D-Ha. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 951. ISBN 978-3-447-05238-2. Retrieved 2013-06-01.
  14. ↑ Özbaran 1994, p. 191 & 108.
  15. ↑ Geschichte Afrikas Vol. 6 (1905), p.455-500 Institut für Weltgeschichte Presse
  16. 1 2 http://www.ethiopiantreasures.co.uk/pages/menelik.htm
  17. 1 2 "Armies". Samizdat.
  18. ↑ "Who Was Count Abai?". RU: SPB
  19. ↑ Cossacks of the emperor Мenelik II
  20. ↑ "Николай Гумилёв. Умер ли Менелик?" (in Russian). RU: Gumilev.
  21. ↑ Диссертация "Российско-эфиопские дипломатические и культурные связи в конце XIX-начале XX веков"
  22. ↑ Oromo expansion in Ethiopia
  23. ↑ "Though Menelik's mother was an Oromo, this did not factor into Addis Ababa's early spatial development "
  24. ↑ Abir, Ethiopia, p. 180.
  25. ↑ Edward C. Keefer (1973). "Great Britain and Ethiopia 1897–1910: Competition for Empire". International Journal of African Studies 6 (3): 470. JSTOR 216612.
  26. ↑ Molla Tikuye, The Rise and Fall of the Yajju Dynasty 1784-1980, p. 201.
  27. 1 2 Chris Prouty Empress Taytu and Menilek II: Ethiopia, 1883-1910. Ravens Educational & Development Services (1986) pp. 27, 28 & 216 Google Books
  28. ↑ Harold D. Nelson, Irving Kaplan Ethiopia, a Country Study, Volume 28. American University, Foreign Area Studies (1981) pp. 14 Google Books
  29. ↑ Kevin Shillington Encyclopedia of African History 3-Volume Set (2013) pp. 506 Google Books
  30. ↑ Paul B. Henze Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia (2000) pp. 196 Google Books
  31. ↑ Chris Prouty Empress Taytu and Menilek II: Ethiopia, 1883-1910. Ravens Educational & Development Services (1986) pp. 45 Google Books
  32. ↑ Paul B. Henze Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia (2000) pp. 208 Google Books
  33. ↑ Gebre-Igziabiher Elyas, Reidulf Knut Molvaer Prowess, Piety and Politics: The Chronicle of Abeto Iyasu and Empress Zewditu of Ethiopia (1909-1930) (1994) pp. 370 Google Books
  34. ↑ John Markakis Ethiopia: The Last Two Frontiers (2011) pp. 109 Google Books
  35. 1 2 3 Conquest, Tyranny, and Ethnocide against the Oromo: A Historical Assessment of Human Rights Conditions in Ethiopia, ca. 1880s–2002 by Mohammed Hassen, Northeast African Studies Volume 9, Number 3, 2002 (New Series)
  36. ↑ Genocidal violence in the making of nation and state in Ethiopia by Mekuria Bulcha, African Sociological Review
  37. ↑ A. K. Bulatovich Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896-1898, translated by Richard Seltzer, 2000
  38. 1 2 Power and Powerlessness in Contemporary Ethiopia by Alemayehu Kumsa, Charles University in Prague
  39. ↑ Haberland, "Amharic Manuscript", pp. 241f
  40. ↑ Chris Prouty Empress Taytu and Menilek II: Ethiopia, 1883-1910. Ravens Educational & Development Services (1986) pp. 16 Google Books
  41. ↑ Prof. Feqadu Lamessa History 101: Fiction and Facts on Oromos of Ethiopia. Salem-News.com (2013)
  42. 1 2 Donald N. Levine Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society. University of Chicago Press (2000) pp. 56 Google Books
  43. 1 2 Donald N. Levine Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society. University of Chicago Press (2000) pp. 136 Google Books
  44. 1 2 Donald N. Levine Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society. University of Chicago Press (2000) pp. 156 Google Books
  45. ↑ The Russian Red Cross Mission
  46. ↑ Wallechinsky, David, Irving Wallace, and Amy Wallace. "The People's Almanac's 15 Favorite Oddities of All Time." The People's Almanac Presents the Book of Lists. New York: William Morrow & Co., 1977. pp. 463-467.
  47. ↑ Dash, Mike, "The Emperor's electric chair". A Blast From the Past, 16 June 2010.
  48. ↑ Stokes, Jamie; Gorman, editor; Anthony; consultants, Andrew Newman, historical (2008). Encyclopedia of the peoples of Africa and the Middle East. New York: Facts On File. p. 516. ISBN 143812676X.
  49. ↑ Saïd Amir Arjomand Social Theory and Regional Studies in the Global Age (2014) pp. 242 Google Books
  50. ↑ Raymond Jonas The Battle of Adwa: African Victory in the Age of Empire (2011) pp. 81 Google Books
  51. ↑ Jean Allain The Law and Slavery: Prohibiting Human Exploitation (2015) pp. 128 Google Books
  52. ↑ Chris Prouty Empress Taytu and Menilek II: Ethiopia, 1883-1910. Ravens Educational & Development Services (1986) pp. 25 Google Books
  53. ↑ Chris Prouty Empress Taytu and Menilek II: Ethiopia, 1883-1910. Ravens Educational & Development Services (1986) pp. 156 & 157 Google Books
  54. 1 2 Chris Prouty Empress Taytu and Menilek II: Ethiopia, 1883-1910. Ravens Educational & Development Services (1986) pp. 219 Google Books
  55. 1 2 ( Chris Prouty, 1986, Empress Taytu and Menelik II)
  56. ↑ Marcus, Menelik II, p. 241.

References

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Menelik II of Ethiopia.
Menelik II
Born: 17 August 1844 Died: 12 December 1913
Regnal titles
Preceded by
Yohannes IV		 Emperor of Ethiopia
1889–1913
with Taytu Betul (1906–1913) 		Succeeded by
Iyasu V
Preceded by
Haile Melekot		 King of Shewa
1865–1889
1855–1856 		Succeeded by
Haile Mikael
Preceded by
Bezabeh		 Joined to Ethiopian crown
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