Nipo T. Strongheart

Nipo T. Strongheart

Nipo T. Strongheart as he appeared in The New York Times in 1917
Native name Nee-Ha-Pouw
Chtu-Tum-Nah
Born George Mitchell Jr.
(1891-05-15)May 15, 1891
White Swan, Washington
Died December 31, 1966(1966-12-31) (aged 75)
Motion Picture Country Hospital, Los Angeles, California
Resting place Smohalla Cemetery, Yakama Nation, Washington
Nationality United States
Known for Native American activism,
Lyceum and Chautauqua performance-lectures, and technical advisor for films with Native American themes
Notable work

Nipo T. Strongheart (born May 15, 1891, in White Swan, Washington; died December 31, 1966, in Hollywood, California) was a Yakama Nation Native American lecturer and performer and a technical advisor to Hollywood film producers. Throughout his life, which spanned several careers, he was an advocate for Native American issues. He spoke on religious issues several times and late in life became a member of the Bahá'í Faith.

Strongheart's mother, Chi-Nach-Lut Schu-Wah-Elks, was a member of the Yakama Nation. He was exposed to native culture through performing with his father in Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show and its successors; according to some sources Strongheart spent most of his childhood with his white father away from the reservation and Indian culture;[1] other sources say he was adopted by a Yakima woman, and brought up and educated on the reservation.[2] Strongheart's public performances began in 1917 when he worked for the YMCA War Work Council. He toured military camps across New England, where he gave presentations on Native American culture and spoke seriously about military service. His talks encouraged hundreds of men to volunteer for war service. After World War I and his job ended, Strongheart moved briefly to the Yakama Indian Reservation but left again and had a successful career in the Lyceum and Chautauqua circuits of fairs, where he gave presentations on Native American culture and often spoke against the reservation lifestyle enforced by government policy. He played an important role in the development of the Indian Citizenship Act of 1924 signed by President Calvin Coolidge, which he thought would help end reservations and empower Indian culture.

In his early youth, Strongheart had already had experience with the fledgling film industry and began to focus his career in that field as the audiences of Lyceum and Chautauqua events dwindled. He was involved in a number of projects in silent film (especially Braveheart) and the developing talkies (especially Pony Soldier). He also helped develop or found a number of organizations centering on Native Americans, including the Los Angeles Indian Center and the still-existing National Congress of American Indians. Through Strongheart's involvement in film production he was able to counter stereotypes about Native Americans; he often translated movie scripts into the language of the Native American peoples portrayed, and also dealt with wardrobe and props.

When Strongheart died, his will included provision for seed money and materials to allow the Yakama Nation to build a library and museum, which became the Yakama Cultural Center. The Yakama Nation established a permanent exhibition about Strongheart in 2014. Scholars began to mention him in 1997 when discussing the military service of Native Americans, and in 2006 when discussing the problems of Native Americans in the Hollywood film industry.

Biography

According to two biographic summaries,[3][4] Strongheart's mother was a Yakima named Chi-Nach-Lut Schu-Wah-Elks.[5] Strongheart gave the names of his parents as George and Lenora (Williams) Mitchell.[6]:p42 According to these biographies, his father was not an Indian and his mother died while he was young. Another biography says he was raised or adopted by one of his mother's relatives for several years and attended the reservation boarding school at Fort Simcoe.[7] These biographies – and others – agree that Strongheart and his father were employed as bareback trick riders for the Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show and Pawnee Bill traveling shows.[8][9] The families, including women and children, were employed by these shows. They often lived in encampments similar to the traditional Indian camps, allowing their culture to be maintained at a time when it was being suppressed elsewhere.[10] One biography[11] states that he acquired the name "Nipo" (short for "Nee-Ha-Pouw") through the show after he fainted and then regained consciousness as though he had risen from the dead. The name is interpreted as "he lives!" or the imperative "live!" He added "Nipo" to his Yakama name, Chtu-Tum-Nah, which he translated as "Strongheart". Another biography states that the name "Nipo" was given to Strongheart in his infancy by his adoptive mother.[7]

Strongheart's mainstream name before adulthood was George Mitchell Jr.[11] At some point his official status as a member of the Yakama Nation ended. At a performance in 1927 he said that when his military service ended he had the choice of returning to the reservation or losing his tribal rights.[12] It is reported that he did return but did not remain at the reservation.[13] He began to document his relationship with the Yakama Nation in the 1930s;[3] he was honorarily[6]:p42 adopted by a Yakama family[11] during the administration of the 1946 Yakima Enrollment Act[6]:p42 after having helped the Tomaskin family.[11][14] Leonard Tomaskin would have been 22 yrs old in 1946; 22 years later he was elected chairman of the General Council of the Yakama Nation, serving from 1968 to 1983.[15]

Strongheart's 1954 article dates his involvement in what he called "historical ethnological studies"[4] to around 1905, perhaps between seasons of the Wild Bill show, while he was attending Carlisle Indian Industrial School in Pennsylvania, where he would have been among members of many different Indian nations.[16] His 1954 article states that while there he participated in a Lubin film company production of the silent film The White Chief.[4][17] Because he spoke enough English and a smattering of other Indian languages to act as a translator, he played a crucial role liaising between the non-Indian production staff and the Indian children they wanted in the movie.[4] There are reports of him being in Oklahoma in 1910, and being in the 5th Cavalry Regiment during the period of the Border War (1910–19) with Mexico.[4][18] Then, in 1910–12,[4] he again worked in the Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show and Pawnee Bill traveling shows as bareback trick rider.[11] Later newspaper coverage also refers to 1914 for military service in the West possibly in the 16th Infantry Regiment. Strongheart was reportedly wounded and his service ended.[18][19][20]

According to Strongheart's 1954 article, in 1915 he advised David Belasco on the true story used in the production of the silent film Heart of Wetona (1919), played the part of Nipo the Medicine Man, and appeared on stage between acts to tell the audience a portion of the true story.[4][21] There is a reference to an Indian actor named Strongheart in a newspaper from Indiana in May 1916 in connection with a silent movie variously named Indiana, Historic Indiana, or The Birth of Indiana that was released in the middle of that year.[22][23] In 1916 he joined the Society of American Indians,a progressive group composed mostly of Native Americans, established to improve their health, education, civil rights, and local government, and address the problems they faced.[11]

YMCA War Work Council

On May 18, 1917 a person referred to as "George Strongheart" tried to volunteer for service in Roosevelt's World War I volunteers as "an expert rider, a sharpshooter and wanted to go in any capacity".[24] Reportedly he was refused the chance to serve further because he was wounded,[18][20] however the attempt to form the units failed. The Sixteenth Infantry was committed to fight in WWI in France, leaving in June 1917.[25] For the period of the World War I, Strongheart was employed by the YMCA War Work Council, which was established in May 1917,[26] supporting the Red Cross, Liberty Loan and Thrift Stamp projects in support of the war effort. He toured the eastern United States giving talks to support the war effort and encourage enlistment, apparently with some success.[7][18][20] He talked to reporters of the irony of foreigners being granted citizenship after a few years of residence while Indians were not given "the same liberty and power".[27]

During this work he was presented as "Chief Strongheart" with a false lineage.[6]:p57[11][28] He went on to tour over 200 soldiers' camps.[18][19][20] Several of the events were reported in newspapers.[29] A part of one of his presentations about Indians and camouflage was picked up in newspapers.[30] Newspapers also reported that he returned to Yakima in February 1919.[13] He was back in the New York area in early 1920.[31] Around 1920 he married Inez Wiley, daughter of a Calusa nation chief,[32][33] in accordance with tribal custom and law, as arranged by her father.[34] As early as 1919 Strongheart knew of Melville Clyde Kelly and his efforts in Congress on behalf of Indians, even though Kelly had no Indian constituents or political relationships with Indians.[6]:p50 In December 1920 Strongheart met with the Bureau of Indian Affairs commissioner, Cato Sells, but did not find a partner in advocacy for change.[6]:p78

Lyceum and Chautauqua

Strongheart had read The Discards by Lucullus Virgil McWhorter, which dealt with troubles among Indians in the Pacific Northwest, around January 17, 1921.[6]:p43 He wrote to McWhorter and told him of his commitment to help the Indians and teach non-Indian audiences about their culture and their contributions to their country. Strongheart and McWhorter carried on a correspondence until the latter died in 1944.[6]:p43

From 1921 Strongheart embarked on an extended series of lectures-cum-performances as part of the Lyceum and Chautauqua fairs held across the United States. The Lyceum movement " ... reflected the increasing value Americans placed on public education ... [and] became a site for public discussion, debate, and controversy".[35] Chautauqua events were called "the most American thing in America" and according to Andrew C. Rieser, were tailored to "appeal to the patriotic, churchgoing, white, native-born, mostly Protestant, northern and Midwestern middle classes".[36] His tour included Pennsylvania,[37] Ohio[38] and Indiana.[39] One of Strongheart's programs, entitled "From Peace Pipe to War Trail and Back Again", highlighted the "nobility, patience, inherent goodness, romance, traditions, faith and suffering of his people".[40] Others programs he developed were "Tales of the First Americans", "The Past and Present of a Vanishing Race" – in which he dwelt on the effects of many decades under the Bureau of Indian Affairs,[41] – and "My People the Yakima". Each lasted between one and two hours.[6]:p54

Strongheart worked for two film production companies that he was involved with: Famous Players Film Company and Essanay Studios.[42][43] During his trip to California from March to May,[44] he promoted petitions in favor of Indian citizenship. The tour included the state of Washington,[45] where he visited the Yakima reservation on July 3, 1921.[6]:p26 On one occasion, in Washington, he did not wear the Native regalia and was still well received, though most of the time his advertising said he would be wearing the Native regalia so he did. However the ornamentation he wore was appropriate to an actual chief which he was not[6]:p58 - being only the son of a daughter of a chief.[7] In mid-1922 he embarked on a tour of British Columbia[46] and Alberta, Canada.[47] In October 1922 he mainly appeared at Society of American Indians meetings, including those in Kansas,[48] Utah,[49] and Illinois.[50] A Lyceum performance was held in November in Illinois,[51] at which he accepted an invitation on behalf of the Society of American Indians to be hosted in one year's time.[52] During this period Strongheart's first daughter was born.[33]

From late 1922 to early 1923 there is a break in Strongheart's activities. A story was circulated based on a comment he made in 1918 concerning rights given to foreigners rather than Indians; this was published in several newspapers. In March 1923 he was in Wisconsin,[53] in April in New York,[54] May in Pennsylvania[55] North Dakota,[56] Illinois,[57] then California in July.[58] Strongheart's petitions and other advocacy work helped get the Indian Citizenship Act passed in 1924.[6]:p41 In 1924 he toured North Carolina[59] and Texas,[60] followed by an extended tour of California in May.[61] A story about his Chautauqua shows was published in California, Texas, and Washington[62] and he went to Utah,[63] where he made an impassioned plea for better treatment of Indians.[64] In July went to the state of Washington[65] and Montana.[66] During this period his first son was born.[33]

In 1925 Strongheart became involved in a film project by Cecil B. DeMille.[4][7] Initially it was named Strongheart after a play written by DeMille's brother William C. deMille c. 1904 and produced on Broadway in 1905[17] as his first major success.[67] The play had been made into a film in 1914.[6]:p26[68][69] As the play's success continued, a remake of the film was undertaken and Strongheart was asked to rewrite it. He included elements referring to the Yakama nation and had the hero succeed in preserving Indian fishing rights,[4] a topic of some recent interest.[70] The original film was 30 minutes long;[71] the revised movie ran for 71 minutes.[72] As the project was nearing completion, a canine star named Strongheart rose to prominence.[17][73] The DeMille film was renamed and released as Braveheart (1925 film), just as the silent film era was drawing to a close. Strongheart had a part in the film, once again as a medicine man and Rod LaRocque played the character Strongheart.[6]:p60[7][74][75] News stories covering the work were published in New York[76] and California.[77] During this time he encouraged a boys' group, similar to boy scouts, in Woodland, California to rename themselves after the Yakimas rather than the (eastern) Mohawks.[78] From then on, advertising sometimes depicted Strongheart wearing Indian regalia and sometimes dressed in normal attire as shown in a scene from the movie.[6]:p57

In 1926 Strongheart again went on tour, giving one show in California in February,[79] followed by a break until July, when he appeared in Missouri.[80] He took another break until October, when he appeared in Ohio.[81] In August that year, during that break between shows, he visited playgrounds in Los Angeles at the request of the city.[82]

Strongheart's first marriage ended in divorce about October 1926,[34] being effected in Los Angeles California.[32] In January 1927 he was scheduled to perform at a Pennsylvania high school.[83] He campaigned for amendment of the Citizenship Bill of 1924, which had not implemented the full citizenship rights for which he had campaigned. In February Strongheart appeared at an Ohio high school,[84] and in December in Connecticut.[85] This show resulted in an extended story covering the sufferings of Indians.[86] He then returned to New York for the rest of the year,[87] before going to Pennsylvania in January 1927.[88] This coverage also prompted a broader call for changes in the treatment of Indians.[89] In February Strongheart continued in Pennsylvania,[90] before going to Ohio to promote the film Braveheart and to give a performance at the theatre[91] and the local high school,[92] which resulted in further publicity for his cause.[93]

A performance-cum-lecture in West Virginia resulted in more publicity: "Indians are held in abject slavery says Strongheart".[94] More performances in Ohio in April/May[95] yielded more publicity for the suffering of Indians on reservations.[96] In late May he attended a pow wow in the Culver City area in honor of Oglala Lakota Chief[97] Luther Standing Bear.[98] Then there was a break until November, when he appeared in Oregon.[99][100]

After another break of several months, with several "warm up" stories that sometimes also pleaded for the suffering Indians,[101] he made several appearances and performances in late June 1928 in Texas,[102] which resulted in a long news story about the enfranchisement of Indians.[103] His talks received glowing reviews, one of which said:[6]:p64

we have never had any attraction which gave us more satisfaction than [Strongheart]. He spoke for two and a half hours to a good house, and the attention was wonderful until the last word, and then we had what is a very unusual custom here, that is for the people to want to speak to the lecturer and compliment him on his work.[6]:p64

For the rest of the year, Stronghold made only a few appearances, one in Pennsylvania in July,[104] and in Nebraska in October.[105] 1929 continues with appearances from February to December – mostly in Pennsylvania,[106] which also resulted in coverage of Indian advocacy and the dispelling of stereotypes.[107][108][109] He toured in Maine,[110] Nebraska,[111] Missouri,[112] and went back to Pennsylvania,[113] where again some news stories about problems faced by Indians were published.[114] Then he undertook an extended tour of Ohio[115] calling for a change in the treatment of Indians.[41] An event in Massachusetts was scheduled for November.[116] There were further meetings in Pennsylvania[117][118] and Ohio.[119]

Time in Los Angeles

In the 1930s there was a slowdown in Strongheart's performances and lectures at the national level and he became more active in the Greater Los Angeles Area. The national Chautauqua audiences were dwindling as the popularity of radio and movie-going; the rise of what is now called Classical Hollywood cinema and the talkies.[6]:p61 There were a few performance-lectures in early 1930 – one in Pennsylvania[120] and two in Wisconsin.[121] In July Strongheart attended a congress of Native Americans from the United States and Canada.[122] In October he joined the Izaak Walton League chapter in Los Angeles and gave a talk in support of their call for protection of game animals, saying he had served as an assistant State Humane Society officer in Washington State and had personally seen 21 out of 127 cases of elk that had been crippled or maimed by hunters. He said one of the Indians' grievances against white culture was the "wanton and ruthless destruction of animals essential to man's sustenance".[123]

Possibly in late 1930, Strongheart married Marian Campbell Winton whom he met in Florida among the Seminole. They divorced in 1933.[124] In April 1931 he and his wife gave a joint performance-lecture at a church in Los Angeles.[125] In July he took some time off to visit friends in Woodland, California, and went on to stay in Washington briefly.[126] In August he tried to register for a police badge in Los Angeles for managing employment of Indians for film production.[127] In August 1932, on the occasion of the 1932 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles, he was employed to create an exhibition about Indians at a store,[128] followed by a November presentation titled "Design and Color in the Art of the American Indian" at the Central Library.[129] In December 1932 he performed a show in Pennsylvania.[130] In January 1933 he spoke at the Daughters of the American Revolution group at the Hollywood Studio Club,[131] followed by a series of performances in April,[132] May[133] and August[134] in Eagle Rock, California, while he was in the process of divorcing Marion Campbell.[124] One reason for the low level of activity might have been a robbery-cum-assault he suffered in Los Angeles in 1933.[32] Strongheart had begun to give talks in libraries and at cultural arts events. After 1933 his public talks were few in number, with one each in 1945,[135] 1957,[136] 1963,[137] and 1964.[138] In June 1934 he chaired an Indian arts exhibition at an arts festival.[139]

1936 was a year of transition for Strongheart. In August 1936 he hosted a pow wow associated with a community event in Hawthorne[140] and co-founded the Los Angeles Indian Center.[11][141][142] Strongheart gained publicity from his consulting work, and in late 1936 he was thanked for assisting Dan L. McGrath in a major biography of Chief Joseph.[143][144][145][146] Around the same time in late 1936, there are reports of him operating a casting bureau for Indians in Hollywood.[147] In 1940 McWhorter thanked Strongheart for researching records of the Nez Perce in his "acknowledgments" in "Yellow Wolf His Own Story".[148]

Development of work in Hollywood films

Strongheart was increasingly integrated into the Hollywood studio system. In 1946 he was contracted as a talent scout to hire 100 Indians for the première of the movie Canyon Passage in Portland Oregon, which was also attended by several Yakama chiefs after the studio representatives failed to find opportunities with Indians in 1945.[4][149] In 1947 he was listed in the credits of Black Gold (1947) (Indian history and ethnology)[150] and in the R. G. Springsteen production of Oregon Trail Scouts.[151] Strongheart hired 50 Indians, translated the script into an Indian language, and coached the non-Indian actors on their lines. A newspaper carried his critique on Hollywood standards of beauty and roles of women in 1949.[152] In 1950 he was involved in an MGM production of The Outriders[4][153][154] He appeared in Young Daniel Boone[155] as an actor and worked as a technical advisor for the film.[156]

In 1951 Strongheart worked briefly on the production of The Painted Hills, liaising with the Miwok people.[4] Next came Across the Wide Missouri,[4][157] Strongheart translated the script, coached the stars, and worked with Lakota actors representing the nations of Blackfoot, Shoshone and Nez Perce.[4] Also in 1951 he worked on Westward the Women, which required Ute people to be portrayed by non-Indians and Navajos.[4] Lone Star involves a group of Coushatta people – a people with whom Strongheart had dealings during his Lyceum tour in Texas.[4] In the 1952 movie Pony Soldier, he worked with the Cree people and their language, and toured to promote the movie.[4][75] He made a number of suggestions that resulted in corrections and improvements to the script.[68] After Pony Soldier he worked on Captain John Smith and Pocahontas (also known as Burning Arrow), Take the High Ground! (1953), and Rose Marie (1954).[4]

Post-Hollywood

In the last years of Strongheart's career, he taught Indian arts and crafts for the University of Southern California and the University of Alaska.[138]

Religion

In his retirement years Strongheart changed his religion. There are few statements about his views on religion, though he performed at several Christian church venues[96][108][158] and those of other religions; Jewish,[121] Theosophical,[135] and Masonic.[159] There are significant statements of his views of moral conduct.[103] During his performance on the Yakama reservation in 1921 he "argued that the 'Great Spirit' and 'Jesus Christ' were different names for the same God, who looked upon all His children" (paraphrased by scholar Lori Lynn Muntz).[6]:pp. 71, 72 He said similar things in 1918; when highlighting the calumet, he is reported to have said:

when the Indians wished peace, the word of the Great Spirit came to the medicine man, after three appeals, to manufacture the peace pipe. The smoke from the pipe circled up and formed a cloud, attracting to the place heads of many tribes. After watching for some time, they heard the word of the Great Spirit ordering each to make a pipe, smoke, and exchange with his neighbor, as a sign of peace between them. The word came to be them to be "united," as all were children of one father. In one place that were to build a temple to be known as a council lodge, as a tradition of peace for their descendants.[160]

He said similar things in 1925 in California[161] and in New York in 1926.[162]

Strongheart's first known encounter with the Bahá'í Faith was Feb 27, 1932, at an inter-racial meeting and dinner in Los Angeles sponsored by the religion. The speakers included Chief Luther Standing Bear.[163] In late February 1963, in a private capacity rather than as a performer, Strongheart attended a gathering of Indian Bahá'ís in Arizona for a "Great Council Fire", which was attended by Hand of the Cause Dhikru'llah Khadem at a time when members of 34 American tribes were represented within the Bahái Faith and twenty six were present.[164][165] Asking attendees who had most recently joined the religion to speak up, and echoing a Bahá'í teaching on the unity of religions, Strongheart said:

"an acknowledgement rather than a declaration." He recalled that his father had taken him as a young man into the towering forests of the north-west and, sitting beneath majestic trees, had related to him the universal Indian tradition of the brotherhood, counseling him, "The birds sing different songs, but they fly in the same sky; the trees have different bark and bear different fruit, but all grow from Mother Earth."[164]

He was speaking, as a new Bahá'í, of a Native American religion. Later in October Strongheart addressed a public gathering sponsored by the Bahá'ís, speaking on themes of race unity and citizenship.[137] In 1965 Strongheart, with other Bahá'ís, took part in an event sponsored by the United Nations Association on the 20th anniversary of the United Nations, performing the Lord's Prayer in a Plains Indian Sign Language.[166] In 1965 there was also a meeting of the religion on the reservation.[167] The first Yakama Bahá'í community of nine adults – the number required to form a Bahá'í Spiritual Assembly – on the reservation was inaugurated in 1969.[168]

Review

Death and legacy

Strongheart died in December 1966 at the Motion Picture Country Hospital[32][169] in Canoga Park, Los Angeles and was buried with a Yakima ceremony at Smohalla Cemetery on the reservation.[170] He had requested to be buried near Kate Williams,[171] a relative of his mother who may have cared for him in his infancy and called a foster mother,[7] and was buried next to the site where many of the Tomaskin family were later buried.[171] Some brief obituaries were printed in January 1967; it was reported that some of Strongheart's legacy was to be used for a Yakima library and museum, with the rest of the estate going mostly to his son Daniel F. Strongheart.[172] The LA Times printed a slightly longer obituary titled "Services Set Today for Chief Strongheart – Colorful Yakima Indian Was Lecturer, Actor and Adviser on Numerous Films",[32] and Variety also published an obituary.[173] The painter Chief Silver Moon of the Caddo nation was commissioned to paint a portrait of him.[174]

Though his will included money and materials for the Yakama Nation, many developments were delayed. The main effort began in 1970 when three vans of building materials arrived at the Yakama nation.[175]:10m:32s However in 1972 Strongheart was still being called a "white man" by the cemetery manager.[171] The approval to move ahead with the idea of a Cultural Center with a museum was voted on in 1973,[176] and construction started in 1978.[177] Development continued in 1979,[178][179] and the Cultural Center, without the museum, was opened in 1980.[180] The museum followed in 1982.[181] These developments occurred while Strongheart's adopted kin, Leonard Tomaskin, was chairman of the General Council of the Yakama Nation.[15] Some materials did not reach the Center until 2003.[9]

Some of the donated materials were later stolen; the curator arrested in 2008[182] and most of the items were recovered. One of them, a basket understood to have been gathered by the Lewis and Clark expedition,[183] was returned to the museum voluntarily in 2011 when it was identified.[184] The total donation included about 7,000 reference books and a variety of other materials Strongheart had gathered during his lifetime and travels.[175]

A 1997 work noted his military service as part of a wider review of Native American participation.[18] Since 2005, he has been mentioned in a number of books or academic papers on Indians in Hollywood,[6][17][141] most recently in 2013.[68] A restoration of Braveheart from 1925 was done by the "Washington Film Preservation Project" and the film shown at a Yakama Nation Native American Film Festival in 2006[185] and 2007.[186] A scholar began to give talks on Strongheart's life in 2013.[11] A permanent exhibition based on his collections and work was established in 2014.[7][14]

Advocacy

Advocacy through talks

Strongheart's talks often used local references and criticized named officials, earning him the censure of the Indian Office and his employers.[11] But these difficulties were overcome and Strongheart was able to continue, though not "naming names" as much.[6]:p76-79 Overall he gathered tens of thousands of signatures in support of Indian rights in the petitions he presented at his traveling performances.[14] Some of his trips into Pennsylvania were in support of Melville Clyde Kelly, who had a district there.[6]:pp. 26, 50 The petitions and other advocacy work helped pass the Indian Citizenship Act in 1924, but[6]:p41 he continued to campaign for the abolition of supervision by the Bureau of Indian Affairs, something largely achieved with Native American self-determination in the 1970s.

In one of Strongheart's first talks that were reported in newspapers, held on August 10, 1918, he shook hands with a Chippewa soldier and other servicemen. Later, when was interviewed by the reporter, he quoted government figures indicating a broad nationalism among the Indians – that 10,000 of the roughly 100,000 Indians had volunteered for war service, and that Indians at home had subscribed to Liberty Loans for ten million dollars to support the war effort. Thousands served in the Red Cross, and by making clothing and bandages. He also said the Indians had used camouflage long before its alleged invention by the French, but others had misinterpreted it as the body painting of savages.[187] In Rhode Island he addressed the Newport Tower mystery, saying, "the red man has always been a believer in education and civilization". He referred to the Great Spirit guiding Indians to peace and the ceremony of the Peace Pipe and suggested that the tower was such a temple, comparing it with other native American structures across North and South America.[160]

An article from 1919 states, "With all the eloquence of his race ... [he] pleaded ... for the freedom of his people and advocated the right of citizenship for them ... Strongheart flayed the white race for its treatment of the red man, advocated allowing his people to leave the reservations and told with pardonable pride, of their fine war record".[188] Possibly alluding to the Mountain Meadows Massacre, he blamed some of the history of Indian violence on Mormons who dressed as Indians and set off a chain of events leading to military conflict culminating in Custer's last stand. After that the Indians just protested being restricted to reservations, all of which was made even more troublesome when gold was found in the Black Hills.[189]

To an audience in 1921 he "revealed many appalling facts regarding the present day treatment of Indians ... Following the lecture many people signed a petition asking Congress to give the Indians the right to vote." according to the newspaper report. His performance piece "From Peace Pipe to War Trail and Back Again" was characterized as evoking the "nobility, patience, inherent goodness, romance, traditions, faith and suffering of his people." In another instance he was reported as saying that he was "...  spending his life in a work that would tend to bring about a better understanding between the white man and his people".[190]

Another report of Strongheart's talk said he criticized white education, saying:

"[it] ... deprives the child of individuality and that too many subjects are taught and not taught thoroughly; that education is delayed too long; while the Indian child learns from earliest infancy. ... Indians were more strict in the matter of morals, the Indian boys as well as the girls being taught to keep themselves pure and to honor and protect women ... The [Indian] only killing for food while the [white man] kills for the fun of the thing. This has resulted in the loss of vast quantities of game. ... showed why the placing of the Indians on reservations had resulted in their impaired health ... canned food had proved to be detrimental to the health. ... Many injustices had been perpetrated as the shutting off of irrigation water ... The custom of sending children away from their parents to boarding schools has been fatal to the children and resulted in tragedies. ... 'sixty years ago the government granted the franchise to the colored race which is denied to the original Americans which now owing to their enforced stay on reservations have now dwindled to 196,000 Indians. The alien and colored children are in the white men's schools while the Indian children are required to be in separate schools. We believe if we are good enough to fight for you we have a right to be free. We ask for franchise and release from the reservations.[191]

Many attendees to that talk signed two petitions (House/Senate).[191]

In January 1922 Jane Zane Gordon sought to establish an "American Indian Arts & Crafts Foundation"[192] and met with President Warren Harding. A story about her effort was published in the Washington Times, quoting a letter from Strongheart:

'I traveled through Reno, Nev.' writes Strongheart. 'I saw a very old lady of the Payutes seated on the sidewalk doing a little basket work to sell things. A number of passers-by stopped, watched her; some of the so-called white men remarked in a most insulting manner, and laughed at the expense of our poor beloved people ... One old, old man was there. He was hungry,' says Strongheart. 'I gave him a silver dollar, and tears rolled down his cheeks. He said "This is the first money I have seen in many years. Uncle Sam promised me grub and bed, but I sleep in the dust and I am always hungry."'[193]

At Stratford High School (Connecticut) in 1926 Stronheart's talk began with some introductory remarks about early history and then began to:

... describe the changes that took place as the red man was driven westward and the decline of this once great race until at last they were forced to accept the dictates of the white man's government, and relinquish jurisdiction on the reservations set aside for them. ... his people were confined to the reservation for a period of 25 years. Their business and legal affairs were all to be handled by an agent responsible only to the Bureau of Indian Affairs ... at the end of the 25 year period the agents, seeing the tremendous advantage to themselves in keeping the Indians ignorant and in some cases swindled them in their business operations, brought influence to bear to have the time extended on the treaty ...'Conditions on the reservation are no better today than they were in 1855' the speaker said. 'The education obtainable is only equivalent to a fifth-grade education. If further schooling is desired and can be paid for the young Indian is permitted to go to another school to ensure an education equivalent to that of the eight grade' ... 'More than that' he said, 'the mind of the young Indian is often poisoned against his own people by the conviction that the whites regard him as inferior. He thus loses his chance for success in both races, for he is afraid to mingle with the whites on an equal footing and he is ashamed of his own people. He becomes a renegade, an outlaw, or at best a shiftless drifter without ambition to overcome the odds against him ... [he calls for the end of educational system enforced on them and then outlines the patriotism of Indian service in WWI for the United States, he continues] This is the only country on earth for them ... and if they are willing to shed their blood for it, they should be good enough to share equally in the advantages that are given to every other race within our borders.'[86][194]

In a 1927 talk to a church group Strongheart " ... made an eloquent appeal that the Indian now be given the same chance in life as the white man, in education, in freedom, and in opportunity ... He ... [had] not difficulty in expressing the most minute shades of meaning. Incidentally he had a fund of humor which caught his hearers by surprise from time to time, and occasionally he found opportunity for a little satire and sarcasm at some of the Caucasian follies."[96]

In 1928 he more than once urged support of a bill "that would aid the 200 Alabama Coushatta people living in a swamp near Livingston, TX. This tribe came at the request of General Sam Houston to aid in the fight for Texas Independence in 1836,"[195] which was recognized in May 1928.[196] He also garnered several columns of space and two articles reviewing his views of Native culture and standards:

The young Indian is taught the lesson of life through the careful training of his parents, the mother devoting her entire time to her children and the father teaching his son to hunt and fish, taking him with him as a companion. They are taught self reliance at an early age, and they are taught to respect women above all things, and protect them ever against himself. The children of the Indian family bear the name of the mother, rather than the father, which is explained in that they are born of the mother's flesh and blood and not the father's. From time to time they receive a different name, and their names signify their outstanding characteristics or accomplishments.

Before an Indian is permitted to consider marriage with a young girl he must have attained three feathers, each with a meaning, one for patience, courage and bravery, and two additional ones for honor must be added before he may be married. In this way the Indian protects his women from marrying unworthy men and there is no cause for divorce in his government ... (of the Indian Citizen Bill that passed he says it) failed to accomplish its purpose ... but which resulted in the Congress of the United States passing a resolution to investigate the entire system of the Indian office and its agencies. It is the hope that the Senate investigation committee will during this summer visit the isolated settlement of the Alabama and Coushata Indians, who are now living in a most pitiful state of existence, and observe the suffering these people have to ensure that no white man would ever tolerate under any circumstances ...

He points out that ... an education above the fifth grade must have the sanction of the government agent of the reservation ... the younger ones, who have had schooling, should be enable to learn by responsibility. They might make some mistakes, but they would learn by them, and make better citizens than they have under 95 years of paternalism ... the Bureau of Indian Affairs still claims that the Indians are incompetent; does this not speak very poorly of the paternalism of that monstrous organization ...?[103]

Advocacy through Hollywood

Strongheart practised his activism broadly across his career, addressing stereotypes about indigenous peoples of North America and racism in early American film. According to Michelle H. Raheja, "Strongheart played primarily uncredited minor roles in films; however, his work off-screen is critical to understanding how Native American actors operated within a visual sovereignty paradigm. ... Strongheart ... used his position as an actor to propel his activism. He hosted Native American students from Sherman Institute ...".[141] Scholar Joanna Hearne wrote, "Throughout his career in Hollywood, he worked as a translator, language coach, and casting agent for Westerns when directors sought to include realistic elements in their films ... in some cases he was able to use this position to agitate for changes, even suggesting the additions of specific characters".[68]

The first specific case mentioned by scholars was his involvement in the 1925 remake of Braveheart, where he was able to include Indians who were not dressed in regalia and succeeded in redressing wrongs done to them; the lead role, however, was still played by a white man in Indian costume.[4][6]:p60[7][69] Hearne said of the film, "The court sequence is heavily and multiply textualized ... conveying legal arguments and judgements that refer to treaties ... the judge's decision parses the meaning of the treaty text itself: 'We have examined the Federal treaty with the Indians and find that it gives them the right to fish where and when they please, without limitation by State tax or private ownership.'"[68] A second specific case came late in Strongheart's career, on Pony Soldier, for which he wrote a critical review of the proposed screenplay, even though other departments of the studio had begun work on it. This led to a meeting with studio executives, resulting in major changes to the project.[4][68]

Advocacy through associations

Visiting reservations gave Strongheart a chance to learn from different nations and let him report to the Society of American Indians on the conditions in reservations, which he was doing actively by 1921.[11] Through the Society he reported on investigations of land grabs against Paiutes and advocated for the unrecognized tribes of the Calusa and Pitt River peoples.[11]

Early in his transition to working in Los Angeles, Strongheart co-founded the Los Angeles Indian Center[11] in 1936.[141][142] Joan Weibel-Orlando, quoting Bramstedt (1977:93) said, "the Los Angeles Indian Center was "the most widely known Indian institution in Los Angeles and 'played an integral role in the formation of service organizations. In fact, if the history of [Los Angeles] Indian groups had any common thread, it was produced by this organization'"[142]

Still early in his transition to Hollywood Strongheart also aided directly in the founding of the National Congress of American Indians in 1944, in response to termination and assimilation policies that the U.S. government forced upon the tribal governments in contravention of their treaty rights and status as sovereign entities.[11] The organization continues to be an association of federally recognized and state recognized American Indian tribes.

See also

References

  1. ↑ Kate Prengaman (10 August 2014). "Nipo Strongheart exhibit shows pride for his people". Yakima Herald.
  2. ↑ Alexander Ewen and Jeffrey Wollock (2014). "Nipo Strongheart". Encyclopedia of the American Indian in the Twentieth Century. Facts On File, Inc.
  3. 1 2 "Strongheart's Lineage" (PDF). Sin-Wit-Ki (Yakima, Washington: Yakama Nation Fish and Wildlife Resource Management Program) 11 (3): 12. Fall–Winter 2006. Retrieved August 24, 2014.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Strongheart, Nipo T. (Autumn 1954). "History in Hollywood". The Wisconsin Magazine of History 38 (1): 10–16, 41–46. JSTOR 4632754.
  5. ↑ The tribe has recognized various spellings at various times – see Louis Fiset; Gail M Nomura (July 1, 2005). Nikkei in the Pacific Northwest: Japanese Americans & Japanese Canadians in the twentieth century. University of Washington Press. p. 76. ISBN 978-0-295-80009-7.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 Lori Lynn Muntz (May 2006). Representing Indians: The Melodrama of Native Citizenship in United States Popular Culture of the 1920s (Thesis). Department of English, University of Iowa. p. 265. ISBN 978-0-542-79588-6. UMI3225654. Retrieved August 26, 2014.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Alexander Ewen; Jeffrey Wollock (2014). "Strongheart, Nipo". Encyclopedia of the American Indian in the Twentieth Century. online. Facts On File, Inc. Retrieved August 19, 2014.
  8. ↑ "STRONG HEART". EXHIBITS. Yakama Nation Museum. Archived from the original on May 19, 2012. Retrieved August 19, 2014.
  9. 1 2 "Strongheart's Treasures in YN Museum" (PDF). Sin-Wit-Ki (Yakima, Washington: Yakama Nation Fish and Wildlife Resource Management Program) 11 (3): 11–12. Fall–Winter 2006. Retrieved August 19, 2014.
  10. ↑ Linda Scarangella McNenly (October 29, 2012). Native Performers in Wild West Shows: From Buffalo Bill to Euro Disney. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 61–69. ISBN 978-0-8061-8808-9.
  11. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Fisher, Andrew H. (Winter 2013). "Speaking for the First Americans: Nipo Strongheart and the campaign for American Indian citizenship.". Oregon Historical Quarterly 114 (4): 441–452. ISSN 0030-4727. Retrieved August 22, 2014.
  12. ↑ "Chief Strongheart is Indians' Bolivar" (PDF). The Philadelphia Enquirer (Philadelphia Pennsylvania). January 9, 1927. p. 24, col 2–3. Retrieved September 5, 2014.
  13. 1 2 "Indian chief was start[sic] recruiter". Spokane Chronicle (Spokane Washington). February 10, 1919. p. 3. Retrieved August 24, 2014."Indians in the war" (PDF). Utica Herald-Dispatch (Utica, NY). February 24, 1919. pp. 6, 2nd col. Retrieved August 30, 2014.
  14. 1 2 3 Prengaman, Kate (August 10, 2014). "Nipo Strongheart exhibit shows pride for his people". Yakima Herald-Republic. Retrieved November 18, 2014.
  15. 1 2 Associated Press (October 11, 1996). "Yakama Nation leader Leonard Tomaskin dies". Seattle Post-Intelligencer. pp. C7. Retrieved November 18, 2014.
  16. ↑ Landis, Barbara. "Tribal Enrollment Tally". Carlisle Indian Industrial School (1879–1918). Retrieved August 27, 2014.
  17. 1 2 3 4 For more on the movie see Angela Aleiss (January 1, 2005). Making the White Man's Indian: Native Americans and HollywoodMovies. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 7, 25–29. ISBN 978-0-275-98396-3.
  18. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Thomas A. Britten (1997). American Indians in World War I: At Home and at War. UNM Press. pp. 63, 118. ISBN 978-0-8263-2090-2.
  19. 1 2 "Citizenship for indians sought". Fitchburg Sentinel (Fitchburg, Massachusetts). December 12, 1919. p. 2. Retrieved August 19, 2014.
  20. 1 2 3 4 "How Indian Chief helped Uncle Sam". New York Times (New York, New York). January 26, 1919. p. 35. Retrieved August 19, 2014.
  21. ↑ "The Heart of Wetona (1919)". The Normal Talmadge Website. December 23, 2008.
  22. ↑ "Stage Indian Massacre for Centennial Films". Logansport Pharos-Tribune (Logansport, Indiana). May 28, 1916. p. 11. Retrieved August 19, 2014.
  23. ↑ The Moving Picture World. World Photographic Publishing Company. 1916. p. 1805.
  24. ↑ "3000 Applicants are added to the Roosevelt Roster" (PDF). New York Herald (New York, New York). May 18, 1917. pp. 12, 2nd col below middle. Retrieved August 29, 2014.
  25. ↑ Coffman, Frank (April 9, 2014). "And then the war began (1917) – A Man Who Was There Tells the Story of the First German Raid upon American Trenches in France". WAR HISTORY ONLINE. Retrieved August 24, 2014.
  26. ↑ Tate, Cassandra (March 26, 2001). "YMCA organizes Washington War Work Council in May 1917.". Timeline Library. History Ink. Retrieved August 23, 2014.
  27. ↑ "Strongheart's experiences interesting". The Portsmouth Herald (Portsmouth, New Hampshire). August 10, 1918. p. 4. Retrieved August 19, 2014.
  28. ↑ See "(photo and caption)". The New York Times (New York, New York). May 20, 1917. p. 55. Retrieved August 19, 2014. and "Nipo Strongheart, c.1915". Archives & Special Collections. Dickinson College. Retrieved August 23, 2014.
  29. ↑ "Strongheart in town". The Portsmouth Herald (Portsmouth, New Hampshire). August 5, 1918. p. 1. Retrieved August 20, 2014."Strongheart's experiences interesting". The Portsmouth Herald (Portsmouth, New Hampshire). August 10, 1918. p. 4. Retrieved August 20, 2014. "Strongheart to give talks here". The Day (New London Connecticut). August 20, 1918. p. 4. Retrieved August 20, 2014. "A tradition of peace". Newport Mercury (Newport, Rhode Island). September 6, 1918. p. 8. Retrieved August 20, 2014. "War work inactive". Newport Mercury (Newport, Rhode Island). September 27, 1918. p. 3. Retrieved August 20, 2014. "Strongheart back again, receives warm welcome". The Portsmouth Herald (Portsmouth, New Hampshire). October 30, 1918. p. 7. Retrieved August 20, 2014. "Soldiers hear Strongheart at Fort Stark". The Portsmouth Herald (Portsmouth, New Hampshire). October 30, 1918. p. 5. Retrieved August 20, 2014. "Work concluded in Portsmouth – Strongheart pleased with this city and its people". The Portsmouth Herald (Portsmouth, New Hampshire). November 2, 1918. p. 8. Retrieved August 20, 2014.
  30. ↑ "Indians invented camouflage". The Chanute Daily Tribune (Chanute, Kansas). February 14, 1919. p. 4. Retrieved August 20, 2014."Old story to the Indian" (PDF). The Waterville Times and Oriskjany Falls News (Waterville NY). October 22, 1920. pp. 1, 1st col. Retrieved August 29, 2014."Old story to the Indian" (PDF). The Auburn Citizen. September 16, 1920. pp. 5, 3rd col bottom. Retrieved August 29, 2014."Old story to the Indian" (PDF). The Canaseraga Times. September 17, 1920. pp. 4, 2nd col. Retrieved August 29, 2014."Old story to the Indian" (PDF). The Evening News (North Tonawanda). September 23, 1920. pp. 2, 5th col. Retrieved August 29, 2014."Art of Camouflage old to the Indian" (PDF). The Daily News (Batavia, NY). September 23, 1920. pp. 2, 6th col. Retrieved August 29, 2014."Old story to the Indian" (PDF). Daily Sentinel (Rome NY). September 23, 1920. p. 6. Retrieved August 29, 2014."Old story to the Indian" (PDF). The Mahoning Dispatch (Canfield Ohio,). October 8, 1920. pp. 1, 2nd col below top. Retrieved August 26, 2014."Old story to the Indian" (PDF). Essex County Herald (Island Pond Vermont). November 11, 1920. pp. 1, 3rd col. Retrieved August 26, 2014."Old story to the Indian" (PDF). The Evening Herald (Klamath Falls Oregon). November 22, 1920. pp. 4, 2nd col. Retrieved August 26, 2014."Old story to the Indian" (PDF). St. Johnsville Enterprise and News. November 24, 1920. pp. 3, 4th col. mid. Retrieved August 29, 2014."Nothing new under the sun" (PDF). The Duluth Herald. December 3, 1920. pp. 8, 1st col. bottom. Retrieved August 29, 2014."Old story to the Indian" (PDF). The Lake Shore News. February 17, 1921. pp. 3, 7th col. bottom. Retrieved August 29, 2014.
  31. ↑ "Clinton Corners" (PDF). The Rhinebeck Gazette (Rhinebeck NY). March 20, 1920. p. 11, left col top. Retrieved August 30, 2014.
  32. 1 2 3 4 5 "Services Set Today for Chief Strongheart- Colorful Yakima Indian Was Lecturer, Actor and Adviser on Numerous Films". Los Angeles Times (Los Angeles, California). January 5, 1967. p. a10.
  33. 1 2 3 KERNS, Donna (WATTS) (October 16, 2006). "Inez (WILEY), STRONGHEART, SINGH . (1903–1967)". Singh Family Genealogy Forum. The Generations Network. Retrieved August 20, 2014.
  34. 1 2 "Royal romance on rocks". Los Angeles Times (Los Angeles, California). October 3, 1926. p. 14.
  35. ↑ Hannum, Dustin E. (14 March 2013). "Lyceum Movement". In Rubin, Joan Shelley; Boyer, Paul S.; Casper, Scott E. The Oxford Encyclopedia of American Cultural and Intellectual History. Oxford University Press. p. 677. ISBN 978-0-19-976435-8.
  36. ↑ Rieser, Andrew C. (2003). "Chautauqua Movement". In Kutler, Stanley I. Dictionary of American History 2 (3rd ed.). Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 113–114. ISBN 9780684805337.
  37. ↑ "Jamestown". The Record-Argus (Greenville, Pennsylvania). January 19, 1921. p. 2. Retrieved August 21, 2014.
  38. ↑ "Indian Chief Strongheart ...". Wilmington News-Journal (Wilmington, Ohio). February 9, 1921. p. 8. Retrieved August 21, 2014.
    "Life of the Indians described by Chief". Wilmington News-Journal (Wilmington, Ohio). February 12, 1921. p. 4. Retrieved August 21, 2014.
    "Strongheart speaks". Wilmington News-Journal (Wilmington, Ohio). February 15, 1921. p. 2. Retrieved August 21, 2014.
    "Adams Township". Wilmington News-Journal (Wilmington, Ohio). February 18, 1921. p. 3. Retrieved August 21, 2014.
  39. ↑ "Indian Chief thrills with romance and Legend of great by vanishing Yakimas". The Huntington Press (Huntington, Indiana). February 27, 1921. p. 9. Retrieved August 21, 2014.
    "Chief Strongheart to lecture at H. S.". The Huntington Herald (Huntington, Indiana). February 28, 1921. p. 7. Retrieved August 21, 2014.
    "Big audience hears Chief Strongheart". The Huntington Herald (Huntington, Indiana). March 1, 1921. p. 3. Retrieved August 21, 2014.
  40. ↑ "Indian Chief thrills with romance and Legend of great by vanishing Yakimas". The Huntington Press (Huntington, Indiana). February 27, 1921. p. 9. Retrieved August 21, 2014.
  41. 1 2 "Indian chieftain seeks freedom in his own country". The Times Recorder (Zanesville, Ohio). July 19, 1929. p. 2. Retrieved August 22, 2014.
  42. ↑ "Chief Strongheart leaves films for Chautauqua". Press-Courier (Oxnard, California). March 31, 1921. p. 3. Retrieved August 20, 2014.
  43. ↑ Kiehn, David (2013). "Essanay Studios Staff Directory – Niles Essanay Silent Film Museum". St. Augustine's College 2013. Retrieved August 25, 2014.
  44. ↑ "Chief Strongheart leaves films for Chautauqua". Press-Courier (Oxnard, California). March 31, 1921. p. 3. Retrieved August 20, 2014.
    "What Chautauqua brings this year". Santa Cruz Evening News (Santa Cruz, California). April 4, 1921. p. 5. Retrieved August 20, 2014.
    "Chief Strongheart ...". Press-Courier (Oxnard, California). April 20, 1921. p. 1. Retrieved August 20, 2014.
    "Strongheart makes strong racial plea". Press-Courier (Oxnard, California). April 21, 1921. p. 1. Retrieved August 20, 2014.
    "Chief Strongheart ...". Santa Cruz Evening News (Santa Cruz, California). April 30, 1921. p. 5. Retrieved August 20, 2014.
    "Tomorrow's bill is notable ...". Woodland Daily Democrat (Woodland, California). May 11, 1921. p. 1. Retrieved August 20, 2014.
  45. ↑ "Chautauqua at Coeur D'Alene" (PDF). The Colville Examiner (Colville, Washington). June 25, 1921. pp. 5, 5th col below top. Retrieved August 20, 2014.
    "Chautauqua program will be a good one" (PDF). The Leavenworth Echo (Leavenworth Washington). July 1, 1921. pp. 1, 6th col. Retrieved August 20, 2014.
    "Chautauqua program will be a good one". The Leavenworth Echo (Leavenworth, Washington). July 1, 1921. p. 1. Retrieved August 21, 2014.
    "Chief Strongheart leaves films for Chautauqua". The Leavenworth Echo (Leavenworth, Washington). July 8, 1921. p. 3. Retrieved August 21, 2014.
    "First Chautauqua number at the gym Sunday at 2:30". The Leavenworth Echo (Leavenworth, Washington). July 22, 1921. p. 1. Retrieved August 21, 2014.
    "The Chautauqua" (PDF). The Leavenworth Echo (Leavenworth Washington). July 29, 1921. pp. 1, 5th col. Retrieved August 20, 2014.
  46. ↑ "1922 Chautauqua programs excel". Creston Review (Creston, British Colombia). May 12, 1922. p. 1. Retrieved September 23, 2014.
    "Chautauqua has finished lectures". Creston Review (Creston, British Colombia). May 26, 1922. p. 3. Retrieved September 23, 2014.
  47. ↑ "Chautauqua – June 19th to 24th". Blairmore Enterprise (Blairmore, Alberta). June 1, 1922. p. 4. Retrieved September 23, 2014.
    "Red Deer Chautauqua". Red Deer News (Red Deer, Alberta). June 21, 1922. p. 7. Retrieved September 23, 2014.
    "Chautauqua". Blairmore Enterprise (Blairmore, Alberta). June 29, 1922. p. 4. Retrieved September 23, 2014.
    "People who will take part in Chautauqua". Gleichen Call (Gleichen, Alberta). July 19, 1922. p. 1. Retrieved September 23, 2014.
  48. ↑ "Society American Indians". Arkansas City Daily Traveler (Arkansas City, Kansas). October 17, 1922. p. 3. Retrieved August 20, 2014.
    "Indians hold meeting". The Coffeyville Daily Journal (Coffeyville, Kansas). October 17, 1922. p. 1. Retrieved August 20, 2014.
  49. ↑ "Indians desire rights of citizens". The Ogden Standard-Examiner (Ogden, Utah). October 17, 1922. p. 6. Retrieved August 20, 2014.
    "Indians discuss enfranchisement". Ellensburg Daily Record (Ellensburg, Washington). October 17, 1922. p. 1. Retrieved August 20, 2014.
  50. ↑ "Society of American Indians holds meeting". Alton Evening Telegraph (Alton, Illinois). October 17, 1922. p. 7. Retrieved August 23, 2014.
  51. ↑ "Lyceum Course". The Decatur Daily Review (Decatur, Illinois). November 18, 1922. p. 2. Retrieved August 23, 2014.
  52. ↑ Chicago Association of Commerce and Industry (1922). Chicago Commerce. p. 6.
  53. ↑ "Indian here to plead cause". The Capital Times (Madison, Wisconsin). March 13, 1923. p. 1. Retrieved August 23, 2014.
  54. ↑ "Strongheart sees city" (PDF). New York Times (New York, New York). April 19, 1923. p. 18, col. 8 near bottom. Retrieved August 30, 2014.
    "Wisdom and humor". Times Herald (Olean, New York). April 25, 1923. p. 26. Retrieved August 23, 2014.
  55. ↑ "Sense of humor". Reading Times (Reading, Pennsylvania). May 2, 1923. p. 14. Retrieved August 23, 2014.
  56. ↑ "Humor". The Bismarck Tribune (Bismarck, North Dakota). May 3, 1923. p. 6. Retrieved August 23, 2014.
  57. ↑ "Sense of humor ...". Freeport Journal-Standard (Freeport, Illinois). May 4, 1923. p. 4. Retrieved August 23, 2014.
  58. ↑ "In England a labor ...". Santa Ana Register (Santa Ana, California). July 6, 1923. p. 20. Retrieved August 23, 2014.
  59. ↑ "Lyceum Attraction". The News Reporter (Whiteville, North Carolina). February 7, 1924. p. 5. Retrieved August 23, 2014.
  60. ↑ "Tonight Chautauqua". The Eagle (Bryan, Texas). April 9, 1924. p. 2. Retrieved August 23, 2014.
  61. ↑ "Wednesday". The San Bernardino County Sun (San Bernardino, California). May 1, 1924. p. 4. Retrieved August 23, 2014.
    "Monday May 5". The San Bernardino County Sun (San Bernardino, California). May 2, 1924. p. 12. Retrieved August 23, 2014.
    "Chief Strongheart will be Chautauqua feature". The San Bernardino County Sun (San Bernardino, California). May 7, 1924. p. 3. Retrieved August 23, 2014.
    "Chautauqua this year ...". Ukiah Republican Press (Ukiah, California). May 14, 1924. p. 6. Retrieved August 23, 2014.
    "Six Lectures ...". The Bakersfield Californian (Bakersfield, California). May 14, 1924. p. 8 4. Retrieved August 23, 2014.
    "Chautauqua lining for fine program for season". Ukiah Dispatch Democrat (Ukiah, California). May 30, 1924. p. 4. Retrieved August 23, 2014.
  62. ↑ ""A real American" gives entertaining lecture". Woodland Daily Democrat (Woodland, California). June 11, 1924. p. 3. Retrieved August 23, 2014.
    ""A real American" gives entertaining lecture". The Eagle (Bryan, Texas). June 25, 1924. p. 10. Retrieved August 23, 2014.
    ""A real American" gives entertaining lecture". The Chehalis Bee-Nugget (Chehalis, Washington). July 18, 1924. p. 2. Retrieved August 23, 2014.
  63. ↑ "Here are a few of them ...". The Ogden Standard-Examiner (Ogden, Utah). June 16, 1924. p. 4. Retrieved August 23, 2014.
    "The program this afternoon ...". The Ogden Standard-Examiner (Ogden, Utah). June 21, 1924. p. 8. Retrieved August 23, 2014.
    "Strongheart will give talk to Methodists". The Ogden Standard-Examiner (Ogden, Utah). June 22, 1924. p. 8. Retrieved August 23, 2014.
    "Chief Strong Heart at Indian Hannah Dedication" (photograph). P.S. du Pont / Longwood Collection. Hagley Museum and Library. 1924. Retrieved August 23, 2014.
  64. ↑ "At our recent Chautauqua ...". The Ogden Standard-Examiner (Ogden, Utah). July 1, 1924. p. 8. Retrieved August 23, 2014.
  65. ↑ "Indian is Chautauqua speaker". The Spokesman-Review (Spokane Washington). June 12, 1924. p. 14. Retrieved August 23, 2014.
    "Chautauqua performers ...". The Chehalis Bee-Nugget (Chehalis, Washington). July 11, 1924. p. 2. Retrieved August 23, 2014.
  66. ↑ "Nipo Strongheart's great lecture ...". The Billings Gazette (Billings, Montana). August 10, 1924. p. 2. Retrieved August 23, 2014.
  67. ↑ Thomas S. Hischak (May 6, 2004). The Oxford Companion to American Theatre. Oxford University Press. p. 171. ISBN 978-0-19-516986-7.
  68. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Joanna Hearne (January 25, 2013). Native Recognition: Indigenous Cinema and the Western. SUNY Press. pp. 78, 107. ISBN 978-1-4384-4399-7.
  69. 1 2 John E. Conklin (October 15, 2008). Campus Life in the Movies: A Critical Survey from the Silent Era to the Present. McFarland. pp. 119–120. ISBN 978-0-7864-5235-4.
  70. ↑ "Yakima Indians see governor and get old fishing rights". The Oregon Daily Journal (Portland, Oregon). January 9, 1920. p. 1. Retrieved August 23, 2014.
  71. ↑ Strongheart (1914) at the Internet Movie Database
  72. ↑ Braveheart (1925) at the Internet Movie Database
  73. ↑ Strongheart the Dog at the Internet Movie Database
  74. ↑ "Chapel speaker is Yokima Chief – Chief Strongheart, notable Indian, is warrior, lecturer, and picture star". Daily Trojan, Vol. 17, No. 46 (Los Angeles, California). November 18, 1925. p. 1, (bottom left). Retrieved August 25, 2014.
    This report contains a number of errors.
  75. 1 2 "Film Actor works with Ty Jr, now". The Deseret News (Salt Lake City, Utah). August 31, 1952. p. 4. Retrieved August 25, 2014.
  76. ↑ ""Braveheart" at the American" (PDF). The Troy Times, (Troy, N. Y,). February 20, 1926. p. ?, (left down from top). Retrieved August 25, 2014.
  77. ↑ "Nipo Strongheart is "Braveheart" is Real Medicine Man". Covina Argus (Covina, California). February 12, 1926. p. 3. Retrieved August 23, 2014.
  78. ↑ "letter sent Yakimas from Strongheart". Woodland Daily Democrat (Woodland, California). May 25, 1925. p. 3. Retrieved August 23, 2014.
  79. ↑ "Free seats to Covina Theater". Covina Argus (Covina, California). February 12, 1926. p. 1. Retrieved August 23, 2014.
  80. ↑ "The Stage and Screen". The Sedalia Democrat (Sedalia, Missouri). July 2, 1926. p. 5. Retrieved August 23, 2014.
  81. ↑ "The high school has contracted ...". The Evening Review (East Liverpool, Ohio). October 2, 1926. p. 5. Retrieved August 23, 2014.
  82. ↑ "Brave tells Indian Lore for children". Los Angeles Times (Los Angeles, Calif). August 4, 1926. p. A5.
  83. ↑ "Local and Foreign Talent". The Gettysburg Times (Gettysburg, Pennsylvania). October 6, 1926. p. 5. Retrieved August 23, 2014.
  84. ↑ "Irondale school to show third feature of picture series". The Evening Review (East Liverpool, Ohio). November 4, 1926. p. 7. Retrieved August 23, 2014.
  85. ↑ "The first of a series of concerts ...". The Bridgeport Telegram (Bridgeport, Connecticut). November 9, 1926. p. 6. Retrieved August 23, 2014.
  86. 1 2 "Indian Chief is speaker". The Bridgeport Telegram (Bridgeport, Connecticut). December 8, 1926. p. 9. Retrieved August 23, 2014.
  87. ↑ "Fellowcraft Club makes Fall plans" (PDF). Schenectady Gazette (Schenectady New York). September 9, 1926. pp. 7, 3rd col, below mid. Retrieved August 30, 2014. "Chief Strongheart to entertain at Lyceum Course" (PDF). Harlem Valley Times (Amenia, N.Y.). November 4, 1926. p. 1, left. Retrieved August 30, 2014. "Indian Chief will speak at Herkimer" (PDF). Utica Daily Press (Utica, New York). November 11, 1926. pp. 21, 7th col. mid. Retrieved August 30, 2014. "Chief Strongheart to be speaker at the dinner" (PDF). Amsterdam Evening Recorder (Amsterdam, New York). November 16, 1926. pp. 14, 4th col. Retrieved August 30, 2014. "Minstrel Show at St. Mary's Academy-Personal" (PDF). The Trou Times (Troy, New York). November 30, 1926. p. ?, col 4. Retrieved August 30, 2014. "New Paltz ... Monday evening Chief Strongheart ..." (PDF). The Kingston Daily Freeman (Kingston, New York). December 2, 1926. pp. 7, 5th col, below mid. Retrieved August 30, 2014.
    "Life of American Indian described by Strongheart" (PDF). The Saratogian (Saratoga Springs, New York). December 18, 1926. pp. 6, 3rd col top. Retrieved August 30, 2014.
  88. ↑ "Arrange Course". New Castle News (New Castle, Pennsylvania). November 17, 1926. p. 16. Retrieved August 23, 2014."Students at Bessemer enjoy many activities". New Castle News (New Castle, Pennsylvania). December 16, 1926. p. 13. Retrieved August 23, 2014.
  89. ↑ "Indian Chief seeks citizenship for American Indians". New Castle News (New Castle, Pennsylvania). January 22, 1927. p. 8. Retrieved August 23, 2014.
  90. ↑ "Indian to speak at Arendtsville". The Gettysburg Times (Gettysburg, Pennsylvania). January 4, 1927. p. 2. Retrieved August 23, 2014.
  91. ↑ "Noted indian to give talk". The Evening Review (East Liverpool, Ohio). February 4, 1927. p. 11. Retrieved August 23, 2014.
  92. ↑ "Irondate to see noted Indian". The Evening Review (East Liverpool, Ohio). February 7, 1927. p. 2. Retrieved August 23, 2014.
  93. ↑ "Chief Strongheart delivered a ...". The Evening Review (East Liverpool, Ohio). February 14, 1927. p. 2. Retrieved August 23, 2014.
  94. ↑ "Indians are held in abject slavery says Strongheart". The Raleigh Register (Beckley, West Virginia). April 10, 1927. p. 3. Retrieved August 23, 2014.
  95. ↑ "Chief Strongheart will speak here". Portsmouth Daily Times (Portsmouth, Ohio). April 30, 1927. p. 5. Retrieved August 23, 2014.
    "Strongheart will address club tonight". Portsmouth Daily Times (Portsmouth, Ohio). May 3, 1927. p. 8. Retrieved August 23, 2014.
  96. 1 2 3 "Life of Indian interestingly reviewed in address Strongheart made to local club". Portsmouth Daily Times (Portsmouth, Ohio). May 4, 1927. p. 12. Retrieved August 23, 2014.
  97. ↑ Luther Standing Bear (1 November 2006). My People the Sioux. U of Nebraska Press. p. 269. ISBN 0-8032-9361-5.
  98. ↑ Spears, Raymond S; illustrated by Criswell, Ralph C. (May 22, 1927). "You may specialize in California". Los Angeles Times (Los Angeles, California). pp. K8–K9 (see K9 for his mention).
  99. ↑ "Ancient Indian pictures on dry river reveal tale of central Oregon warfare". A 75-year-old newspaper clipping reports The Badlands pictographs. TraditionalMountaineering.org. November 23, 1927. Retrieved August 25, 2014.
    "Ancient Indian batter told in hieroglyphs". Tyrone Daily Herald (Tyrone, Pennsylvania). December 30, 1927. p. 6. Retrieved August 22, 2014.
    "Ancient Indian batter told in hieroglyphics". Newport Mercury (Newport, Rhode Island). December 31, 1927. p. 8. Retrieved August 22, 2014.
  100. ↑ For more on the hieroglyphs see Brogan, Phil F. (1969). Visitor information service book for the Deschutes National Forest (PDF). Deschutes National Forest Service, US Dept. of Agriculture. pp. 50–51.
  101. ↑ "Chautauqua will be in Corsicana June 14th to 20th". Corsicana Daily Sun (Corsicana, Texas). May 10, 1928. p. 4. Retrieved August 22, 2014.
    "Indian Chief will be feature coming Chautauqua here". Corsicana Daily Sun (Corsicana, Texas). May 28, 1928. p. 14. Retrieved August 22, 2014.
    "Chief Strongheart will be heard here coming Chautauqua". Corsicana Daily Sun (Corsicana, Texas). June 8, 1928. p. 16. Retrieved August 22, 2014.
    "Strongheart Yakima Chief Premier". Corsicana Daily Sun (Corsicana, Texas). June 9, 1928. p. 4. Retrieved August 22, 2014.
    "Chief Strongheart tells story early of Indians". Corsicana Daily Sun (Corsicana, Texas). June 12, 1928. p. 16. Retrieved August 22, 2014.
  102. ↑ "Third Day; Night". Corsicana Daily Sun (Corsicana, Texas). June 13, 1928. p. 7. Retrieved August 22, 2014.
    "Zoom! Zoom! What's coming ...". The Cameron Herald (Cameron, Texas). June 14, 1928. p. 1. Retrieved August 22, 2014."In the histories of ...". The Cameron Herald (Cameron, Texas). June 14, 1928. p. 4. Retrieved August 22, 2014."Chautauqua High School Auditorium". Corsicana Daily Sun (Corsicana, Texas). June 15, 1928. p. 3. Retrieved August 22, 2014."Indian leader is principal feature program Saturday". Corsicana Daily Sun (Corsicana, Texas). June 18, 1928. p. 3. Retrieved August 22, 2014.
  103. 1 2 3 "Strongheart pleads for Indians here". The Vernon Daily Record (Vernon, Texas). July 9, 1928. p. 1. Retrieved August 22, 2014.
    "Strongheart – continued from page 1". The Vernon Daily Record (Vernon, Texas). July 9, 1928. p. 4. Retrieved August 22, 2014.
    "Give the Indian a chance". The Vernon Daily Record (Vernon, Texas). July 9, 1928. p. 4. Retrieved August 27, 2014.
  104. ↑ "There will be ...". The Indiana Gazette (Indiana, Pennsylvania). July 3, 1928. p. 1. Retrieved August 22, 2014.
  105. ↑ "Club Women lay plans – Chief Strongheart to give program at Temple Oct 8". Lincoln Evening Journal (Lincoln, Nebraska). September 25, 1928. p. 6. Retrieved August 22, 2014.
  106. ↑ "Indian to speak". Reading Times (Reading, Pennsylvania). February 6, 1929. p. 10. Retrieved August 22, 2014.
    "The last of the number of the Lyceum course ...". The Scranton Republican (Scranton, Pennsylvania). February 6, 1929. p. 5. Retrieved August 22, 2014.
    "Woman's club to head American Indian at meeting today". Reading Times (Reading, Pennsylvania). February 9, 1929. p. 9. Retrieved August 22, 2014.
    "Woman's club favors almshouse improvements". Reading Times (Reading, Pennsylvania). February 11, 1929. p. 11. Retrieved August 22, 2014.
    "Schools to have Lyceum course". Reading Times (Reading, Pennsylvania). September 22, 1928. p. 19. Retrieved August 22, 2014.
    "Movie actor coming here – Chief Strongheart will give lecture in Willsborough February 23". The Wellsboro Gazette (Wellsboro, Pennsylvania). February 13, 1929. p. 1. Retrieved August 22, 2014.
    "Indian Chief speaks". Harrisburg Telegraph (Harrisburg, Pennsylvania). February 27, 1929. p. 2. Retrieved August 22, 2014.
    "Interesting lecture". The Daily Notes (Canonsburg, Pennsylvania). February 28, 1929. p. 6. Retrieved August 22, 2014.
  107. ↑ "Indian Chief deplores failure of US to give citizenship to Red Men". Reading Times (Reading, Pennsylvania). February 9, 1929. p. 12. Retrieved August 22, 2014.
  108. 1 2 "Indian Chief made address – interesting lecture by Chief Strongheart enjoyed by large audience". The Wellsboro Gazette (Wellsboro, Pennsylvania). February 27, 1929. p. 1. Retrieved August 22, 2014.
  109. ↑ "High school news". The Daily Notes (Canonsburg, Pennsylvania). March 6, 1929. p. 6. Retrieved August 22, 2014.
  110. ↑ "Chautauqua has same officials". The North Adams Transcript (North Adams, Massachusetts). March 8, 1929. p. 11. Retrieved August 22, 2014.
  111. ↑ "Chief Strongheart appears ...". Lincoln Evening Journal (Lincoln, Nebraska). March 9, 1929. p. 3. Retrieved August 22, 2014.
  112. ↑ "Chief Strongheart to give a lecture tonight". Joplin Globe (Joplin, Missouri). March 19, 1929. p. 3. Retrieved August 22, 2014.
  113. ↑ "There will be a big day for junior chautauquans ...". The Morning Herald (Uniontown, Pennsylvania). May 8, 1929. p. 3. Retrieved August 22, 2014."Chautauqua Beaver, PA". The Daily Times (Beaver, PA). June 17, 1929. p. 4. Retrieved August 25, 2014.
  114. ↑ "Says Indian lacks chance – Strongheart, lecturer, sees unfairness in confinement to Reserves". Lincoln Evening Journal (Lincoln, Nebraska). March 14, 1929. p. 14. Retrieved August 22, 2014.
  115. ↑ "Official Program Portsmouth Redpath Chautauqua". Portsmouth Daily Times (Portsmouth, Ohio). June 10, 1929. p. 11. Retrieved August 22, 2014.
    "Chief Nipo Strongheart of the Yakima ...". Portsmouth Daily Times (Portsmouth, Ohio). June 17, 1929. p. 15. Retrieved August 22, 2014.
    "Complete plan for Chautauqua". Wilmington News-Journal (Wilmington, Ohio). June 21, 1929. p. 8. Retrieved August 22, 2014.
    "Chautauqua brings Indian who starred in Picture, "Braveheart"". Portsmouth Daily Times (Portsmouth, Ohio). June 24, 1929. p. 5. Retrieved August 22, 2014. which is similar to "Strongheart: an American". Circuit Chautauqua in the Twentieth Century. Iowa Digital Library. 1929. Retrieved August 25, 2014.
    "Zanesville Redpath Chautauqua". The Times Recorder (Zanesville, Ohio). July 9, 1929. p. 9. Retrieved August 22, 2014.
    "Aug 7 – Afternoon ...". The Evening Review (East Liverpool, Ohio). July 9, 1929. p. 10. Retrieved August 22, 2014.
    "Chief Strongheart ...". The Times Recorder (Zanesville, Ohio). July 18, 1929. p. 4. Retrieved August 22, 2014.
  116. ↑ "Lyceum course dates arranged". The North Adams Transcript (North Adams, Massachusetts). June 13, 1929. p. 16. Retrieved August 22, 2014.
  117. ↑ "Chronology of local happenings (July) Chief Nipo Strongheart ...". The Coshocton Tribune (Coshocton, Ohio). December 31, 1929. p. 6. Retrieved August 22, 2014.
    "Building your Chautauqua program". The Morning Herald (Uniontown, Pennsylvania). July 27, 1929. p. 15. Retrieved August 22, 2014.
  118. ↑ "Indian Chief on program at Chautauqua". The Morning Herald (Uniontown, Pennsylvania). August 3, 1929. p. 3. Retrieved August 22, 2014.
  119. ↑ "The program for Wednesday ...". The Evening Review (East Liverpool, Ohio). August 6, 1929. p. 3. Retrieved August 22, 2014.
    "Looking Back by Mary Allen; "40 yrs ago"". The Bryan Times (Bryon Ohio). August 20, 1969. p. 3. Retrieved August 22, 2014.
  120. ↑ "The mountain Indians' Carries; Two centuries before Captain Smith -"Entertains Chief"". Reading Eagle (Reading, Pennsylvania). March 2, 1930. p. 19 (far right). Retrieved August 22, 2014.
  121. 1 2 "Jewish Council lists program". The Milwaukee Journal (Milwaukee Wisconsin). Aug 18, 1929. p. 28. Retrieved August 22, 2014. also in "on March 11 ...". The Wisconsin Jewish Chronicle (Milwaukee, Wisconsin). September 20, 1929. p. 5. Retrieved August 22, 2014. "Jewish Council to hear talk by Chieftain". The Milwaukee Sentinel (Milwaukee Wisconsin). March 9, 1930. p. 14. Retrieved August 22, 2014.
  122. ↑ "Indians holding congress". The Champion Chronicle (Champion, Alberta). July 24, 1930. p. 7. Retrieved September 23, 2014.
  123. ↑ "Indian Chief joins League: Nipo Strongheart, Yakima Leader, Speaks at Izaak Walton Gathering; Urges Game Protection". Los Angeles Times (Los Angeles, California). October 26, 1929. p. 6.
  124. 1 2 "Insull named in divorce trial". The Daily Plainsman (Huron, South Dakota). April 21, 1933. p. 6. Retrieved August 22, 2014. "Stronheart's ex-wife seeks deed to home". Los Angeles Times (Los Angeles, California). May 2, 1933. p. A5. "Sad, sad ending of her venture in Indian romance". The Ogden Standard-Examiner (Ogden, Utah). June 11, 1933. p. 23. Retrieved August 22, 2014.
  125. ↑ "Indian Chief will be church speaker". Los Angeles Times (Los Angeles, California). April 27, 1931. p. A9.
  126. ↑ "L. V. McWhorter of Yakima ...". Woodland Daily Democrat (Woodland, California). July 7, 1931. p. 8. Retrieved August 22, 2014.
  127. ↑ "Indian's badge plea brings voting quiz". Los Angeles Times (Los Angeles, California). August 25, 1931. p. A2.
  128. ↑ "Artcraft by Indians on display". Los Angeles Times (Los Angeles, California). August 3, 1932. p. A8.
  129. ↑ "Library plans book and Indian art talks". Los Angeles Times (Los Angeles, California). November 20, 1932. p. A3.
  130. ↑ "The assembly room of the Civic Club ...". The Evening News (Harrisburg, Pennsylvania). December 13, 1932. p. 3. Retrieved August 22, 2014.
  131. ↑ "Patriotic Societies meet". Los Angeles Times (Los Angeles, California). January 8, 1933. p. B12.
  132. ↑ "Mix, Biscailuz, Jessup at Scout Ceremony Here". Eagle Rock Advertiser (Eagle Rock, California). April 6, 1933. p. 1. Retrieved September 23, 2014.
  133. ↑ "Little Theater to give 3 plays". Eagle Rock Advertiser (Eagle Rock, California). May 4, 1933. p. 6 sec B. Retrieved September 13, 2014.
  134. ↑ "Crowd of 5,000 at Kids Circus". Eagle Rock Advertiser (Eagle Rock, California). August 31, 1933. p. 1. Retrieved September 13, 2014.
  135. 1 2 "Theosophical News and Notes". Covina Argus (Covina, California). August 3, 1945. p. 12. Retrieved August 22, 2014.
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  137. 1 2 "Baha'i Leader to speak tomorrow". Pasadena Independent (Pasadena, California). October 17, 1963. p. 83. Retrieved August 19, 2014.
  138. 1 2 "Indian Chief to speak on Tribal Rites". Pasadena Independent (Pasadena, California). May 9, 1964. p. 4. Retrieved August 22, 2014.
  139. ↑ "Art Festival to be elaborate". Los Angeles Times (Los Angeles, California). June 17, 1934. p. 18.
  140. ↑ "Pet Parade Opens Powwow". Los Angeles Times (Los Angeles, California). August 28, 1936. p. 10.
  141. 1 2 3 4 Michelle H. Raheja (January 1, 2011). Reservation Reelism: Redfacing, Visual Sovereignty, and Representations of Native Americans in Film. U of Nebraska Press. pp. 28,153–154. ISBN 978-0-8032-6827-2.
  142. 1 2 3 Joan Weibel-Orlando (1999). Indian Country, L.A.: Maintaining Ethnic Community in Complex Society. University of Illinois Press. pp. 84–85. ISBN 978-0-252-06800-3.
  143. ↑ "In Hollywood by Paul Harrison". The Edwardsville Intelligencer (Edwardsville, Illinois). October 12, 1936. p. 4. Retrieved August 22, 2014. "Idaho graduate writes biography of famous leader of Nez Perces". Lewiston Tribune (Spokane Washington). December 2, 1936. p. ?. Retrieved August 24, 2014. "Was Red Napoleon master mind? Idahoan probes history for clue". Oregonian. December 7, 1936. p. ?. Retrieved August 24, 2014.
  144. ↑ Helen Addison Howard; Dan L. Mcgrath (1941). War Chief Joseph. Assisted in the Research by Dan L. Mcgrath. Maps and Illustrations by George D. Mcgrath. University of Nebraska Press.
  145. ↑ Helen Addison Howard (1971). Saga of Chief Joseph. U of Nebraska Press. pp. 29, 86. ISBN 0-8032-7202-2.
  146. ↑ "Guide to the Lucullus Virgil McWhorter Papers 1848–1945". Washington State University Libraries – Manuscripts, Archives, and Special Collections. Retrieved August 25, 2014.
  147. ↑ Johnson, Erskine (October 12, 1936). "Hollywood News and Gossip" (PDF). The Morning Herald (Gloversville and Johnstown NY). p. 31a. Retrieved August 30, 2014.
  148. ↑ McWhorter, Lucullus Virgil (1940). Yellow Wolf His Own Story. The Caxton Printers, Ltd. p. Acknowledgements.
  149. ↑ "News of the Studios – Nipo Strongheart" (PDF). The New York Sun (New York, New York). July 8, 1946. pp. 15, 2nd col. Retrieved August 30, 2014. Maxwell, Elsa (July 20, 1946). "Elsa Maxwell's Week-end Round-up: The day of the premiere ..." (PDF). New York Post (San Francisco, California). p. 8. Retrieved August 30, 2014.
  150. ↑ Walter E. Hurst; D. Richard Baer (March 1993). Film Superlist: 1940–1949. Hollywood Film Archive. p. 38. ISBN 978-0-913616-27-7.
  151. ↑ Anderson, Chuck. "Nipo Strongheart and John War Eagle". The Indians; A tribute to the many Native Americans who toiled in the B-western and serial. Retrieved August 26, 2014."Indians, Black Mare teaming to bring "Black Gold" to varsity". The Lincoln Star (Lincoln, Nebraska). September 7, 1947. p. 27. Retrieved August 19, 2014.
  152. ↑ MacPherson, Virginia (April 6, 1949). "Stars are too skinny to arouse the interest of Indians, says Chief" (PDF). Binghamton Press (Binghamton NY). p. 45. Retrieved August 30, 2014.
  153. ↑ American Film Institute (1999). Afi: American Film Institute Catalog of Motion Pictures Produced in the United States : Feature Films 1941–1950 Indexes. University of California Press. pp. 659–660. ISBN 978-0-520-21521-4.
  154. ↑ Jane Ellen Wayne (March 27, 2006). The Leading Men of MGM. Da Capo Press, Incorporated. p. 419. ISBN 978-0-7867-1768-2.
  155. ↑ Young Daniel Boone (1950) at the Internet Movie Database
  156. ↑ "Young Daniel Boone". Production Encyclopedia (1947–1951). The Hollywood Reporter. 1952. p. 495. Retrieved August 25, 2014.
  157. ↑ Wood, James S. (February 24, 2012). "RIP, Ricardo – The memorable Montalban". Eugene Weekly. Archived from the original on August 25, 2014. Retrieved August 25, 2014."Indian will give his lore to Gable" (PDF). Buffalo Courier-Express. July 9, 1950. p. 15-b, 6th col. Retrieved August 30, 2014.
  158. ↑ "Strongheart will give talk to Methodists". The Ogden Standard-Examiner (Ogden, Utah). June 22, 1924. p. 8. Retrieved August 23, 2014.
  159. ↑ "Indian Chief to visit local lodge Saturday" (PDF). Schenectady Gazette. November 12, 1926. p. 5, col 1 below mid. Retrieved August 29, 2014.
  160. 1 2 "A tradition of peace – theory that "Old Stone Mill: was a temple of Indians". Newport Mercury (Newport, Rhode Island). 6 September 1918. p. 8. Retrieved August 19, 2014. "The Old Stone Mill". Newport Daily News (Newport, Rhode Island: Redwood Library & Athenæum). 19 November 1985. p. sec a4. Retrieved August 26, 2014.
  161. ↑ "Chief Strongheart speaks in Chapel". Daily Trojan, Vol. 17, No. 47 (Los Angeles, California). November 19, 1925. p. 1, (bottom right). Retrieved August 25, 2014.
  162. ↑ "Tells story of Indian's life" (PDF). Amsterdam Evening Recorder (Amsterdam NY). November 19, 1926. p. 2, left half. Retrieved August 29, 2014.
  163. ↑ "The Far West". Bahá'í World; A Biennial International Record VII (April 1936 - 1938 ed.). Bahai Publishing Committee. 1939. p. 663.
  164. 1 2 "Great Council Fire". Bahá'í News (National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of the United States). April 1963. p. 17. ISSN 0195-9212. Retrieved August 19, 2014.
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  166. ↑ "Bahá'ís celebrate the twentieth anniversary of the United Nations". Bahá'í News 6 (413): 7–9 (mentioned on page 8, mid–right). January 1966. ISSN 0195-9212. Retrieved September 22, 2014.
  167. ↑ "Works for Bahai faith". Port Angeles Evening News (Port Angeles, Washington). October 18, 1965. p. 6. Retrieved August 26, 2014.
  168. ↑ "The Proclamation of Bahá'u'lláh is presented to Indian Leaders" (PDF). National Bahá'í Review (National Assembly of the Bahá'ís of the United States) (19): 7. July 1969. Retrieved August 26, 2014.
  169. ↑ "June 19 opening for Indian center". The Spokesman-Review (Spokane Washington). March 4, 1980. p. 55. Retrieved August 26, 2014.
  170. ↑ The most recent mention of the cemetery is Yang, Mengni (January 8, 2012). "Columbia man returns rare Native American artifact to Washington state museum". Columbia Missourian (Columbia, Missouri). Retrieved October 25, 2014. other older ones noting other cemetery is "Strongheart to be buried by Yakimas". The Spokesman-Review (Spokane Washington). January 9, 1967. p. 1. Retrieved August 26, 2014. "Chief Nipo Strongheart". Findagrave.com. December 30, 2008. Retrieved August 26, 2014.
  171. 1 2 3 Mary Dodds Schlick (2006). Coming to Stay: A Columbia River Journey. Oregon Historical Society Press. pp. 147–148. ISBN 978-0-295-98670-8.
  172. ↑ "Memorial rites planned tonight for indian actor". Valley News (Van Nuys, California). January 5, 1967. p. 45. Retrieved August 19, 2014. "News shorts; (2nd) Los Angeles (AP)". Lewiston Evening Journal (Lewiston-Auburn Maine). September 28, 1967. p. 9. Retrieved August 26, 2014. "Actor wills money for Indian museum". The Tuscaloosa News (Tascaloosa-Northport Alabama). October 1, 1967. p. 18. Retrieved August 26, 2014. "Chief Strongheart; Appeared in Movies". The Washington Post, Times Herald (Washington, D.C.). January 6, 1967. p. C6.
  173. ↑ Variety Obituaries January 11, 1967
  174. ↑ "Painting of First Indian Actor Unveiled". Los Angeles Times (Los Angeles, California). March 23, 1967. p. sf2.
  175. 1 2 Ronnie Washines (August 2007). Nipo Strongheart (video). Yakima Washington: NorthWest Indian news.
  176. ↑ Coker Jr, Edward (May 23, 1976). "Yakimas O.K. cultural center plans". The Spokesman-Review (Spokane Washington). p. 9. Retrieved August 26, 2014.
  177. ↑ "Yakimas gain new facility". Spokane Daily Chronicle (Spokane Washington). July 19, 1978. p. 32. Retrieved August 26, 2014.
  178. ↑ Prater, Yvonne (April 12, 1979). "Yakima Nation's center toured". Ellensburg Daily Record (Ellensburg Washington). p. 4. Retrieved August 26, 2014.
  179. ↑ Mary Dodds Schlick (1994). Columbia River Basketry: Gift of the Ancestors, Gift of the Earth. University of Washington Press. pp. 191, 227. ISBN 978-0-295-97289-3.
  180. ↑ "Yakimas gain new facility". Spokane Daily Chronicle (Spokane Washington). July 19, 1978. p. 2. Retrieved August 26, 2014. "Indians build Cultural Center". Spokane Daily Chronicle (Spokane Washington). March 4, 1980. p. 7. Retrieved August 26, 2014. "June 19 opening for Indian center". The Spokesman-Review (Spokane Washington). March 4, 1980. p. 55. Retrieved August 26, 2014.
  181. ↑ Arthur, Allison (June 10, 1982). "Yakima Indian museum opened". Ellensburg Daily Record (Ellensburg Washington). p. 5. Retrieved August 26, 2014.
  182. ↑ "Yakama museum curator sentenced for artifact thefts". News from Indian Country (AP) (Yakima, Washington). June 13, 2008. Retrieved August 25, 2014."Yakama museum curator sentenced for artifact thefts". (AP) carried by MyNorthwest.com. June 6, 2008. p. online. Retrieved August 30, 2014.
  183. ↑ Anne Laure Bandle; Raphaël Contel; Marc-André Renold (March 2012). "Wasco Sally Bag – American dealer and Paul Cary and the Yakama Nation Museum". Platform ArThemis (ART-LAW CENTRE – UNIVERSITY OF GENEVA): 1–4. Retrieved September 1, 2014.
  184. ↑ Gargas, Jane (October 30, 2011). "Tribal bag takes long, winding route home". Yakima Herald-Republic (Yakima Washington). p. ?. Retrieved August 26, 2014.
  185. ↑ Nowacki, Kim (November 10, 2006). "Native American Film Festival – Preservation celebration". Yakima Herald-Republic (Yakima Washington). p. ?. Retrieved August 26, 2014.  – via HighBeam (subscription required)
  186. ↑ Nowacki, Kim (November 9, 2007). "Indian filmmakers getting their stories out". Yakima Herald-Republic (Yakima Washington). p. ?. Retrieved August 26, 2014.  – via HighBeam (subscription required)
  187. ↑ "Strongheart's experiences interesting". The Portsmouth Herald (Portsmouth, New Hampshire). August 10, 1918. p. 4. Retrieved August 19, 2014.
  188. ↑ "Citizenship for Indians sought". Fitchburg Sentinel (Fitchburg, Massachusetts). December 12, 1919. p. 2. Retrieved August 19, 2014.
  189. ↑ "Citizenship for Indians sought – continued from page 2". Fitchburg Sentinel (Fitchburg, Massachusetts). December 12, 1919. p. 6. Retrieved August 19, 2014.
  190. ↑ "Big audience hears Chief Strongheart". The Huntington Herald (Huntington, Indiana). March 1, 1921. p. 3. Retrieved August 19, 2014.
  191. 1 2 "Strongheart makes strong racial plea". Press-Courier (Oxnard, California). April 21, 1921. p. 1. Retrieved August 19, 2014.
  192. ↑ Andrews, Sallie Cotter. "Jane Zane Gordon". wyandotte-nation.org. Retrieved August 27, 2014.
  193. ↑ "New Center in Washington to encourage Indian arts plans rebirth of ancient crafts of lost civilization" (PDF). The Washington Times (Washington D.C.). January 22, 1922. p. 5 see far right col. Retrieved August 20, 2014.
  194. ↑ for related information see Clifford E. Trafzer; Robert R. McCoy (20 March 2009). Forgotten Voices: Death Records of the Yakama, 1888–1964. Scarecrow Press. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-8108-6648-5.
  195. ↑ ""Tommy" and "Shepherd of the Hills" / 1928 (quoting Waxahachie Daily Light June 21, 1928)". Bayes-Yeager Online Archive of the Performing Arts, by Harold Lang. 1928. Retrieved August 26, 2014.
  196. ↑ "A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE ALABAMA-COUSHATTA TRIBE OF TEXAS". The Alabama-Coushatta Tribe of Texas. Retrieved August 27, 2014., see also Prairie View Malone (1960). Sam Houston's Indians: The Alabama-Coushatti. Naylor Company.

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