Nuclear-free zone

A nuclear-free zone is an area where nuclear weapons (see nuclear-weapon-free zone) and nuclear power plants are banned. The specific ramifications of these depend on the locale in question.

Nuclear free zones usually do not address nor prohibit radiopharmaceuticals used in nuclear medicine, even though many of these are produced in nuclear reactors. Nuclear Free Zones typically do not prohibit other nuclear technologies such as cyclotrons used in particle physics.

Several sub-national authorities worldwide have declared themselves "nuclear-free". However, this label is often symbolic, as nuclear policy is usually determined and regulated at higher levels of government - nuclear weapons and components may traverse nuclear-free zones via military transport without the knowledge or consent of local authorities which had declared nuclear-free zones.

Palau became the first nuclear-free nation in 1980.[1] New Zealand was the first Western-allied nation to legislate towards a national nuclear free zone, effectively renouncing the nuclear deterrent.[2]

Nuclear-free zone by geographical areas

Australia

Many Australian local government areas of Australia have passed anti-nuclear weaponry legislation; notable among these are Brisbane, capital of Queensland, which has been nuclear weapon free since 1983, and the South and North Sydney councils. However the passage of such legislation is generally considered just a symbolic measure.[3] The majority of councils which have passed anti-nuclear weaponry legislation are members of the Australian Nuclear Free Zones and Toxic Industries Secretariat which has 44 member councils.[4]

Austria

Austria is a nuclear free zone, when a nuclear power station was built during the 1970s at Zwentendorf, Austria, start-up was prevented by a popular vote in 1978. The completed power plant is now marketed as a shooting location for film and television.[5] On July 9, 1997, the Austrian Parliament voted unanimously to maintain the country's anti-nuclear policy.[6]

Ironically, the headquarters of the International Atomic Energy Agency is located in Vienna, and the IAEA maintains nuclear laboratories both in Vienna and Seibersdorf.[7] The IAEA has also established programs to assist nuclear energy projects in developing countries.

Austria's anti-nuclear stance also causes tension with its nuclear neighbors. Vienna is located close to the Czech reactor at Temelin, and four reactors are being built in neighboring Slovakia and two in neighboring Hungary.[8] Austria also draws from regional electricity grids, meaning it imports nuclear power, although chancellor Werner Faymann has pledged to eliminate Austria's reliance on foreign power by 2015.[9]

Central Asia

All states of Central Asia have signed the Treaty of non-proliferation of nuclear technologies and signed the Treaty on Nuclear weapon-free zones. Thus there are no technologies to create a weapon, or enrich the particles, although in Tajikistan, during the Soviet Union such initiatives were brought to life but with the collapse of USSR, the facilities were dismantled and moved to Russian Federation. The Treaty came into force on 21 March 2009.

Canada

Vancouver is a nuclear weapons free city. Victoria, British Columbia is also a nuclear weapons free city. This has caused problems as nearby Esquimalt houses CFB Esquimalt, Canada's Pacific naval base, which is used frequently by the United States Navy. The USN routinely sends ships or aircraft carriers loaded with nuclear weapons to Esquimalt. As a result, the ships are forced to dock out of the city limits as not to violate the city by-laws. The policy does not limit operations at TRIUMF, Canada's national laboratory for nuclear and particle physics at the University of British Columbia, Vancouver. The province of British Columbia also bans mining for uranium, and the construction of nuclear power plants within its territorial limits.[10]

Nanaimo, British Columbia, Kitimat, British Columbia; Red Deer, Alberta, and Regina, Saskatchewan are also nuclear weapons-free cities.

Estonia

After the end of Russian occupation in Baltic countries in early 1990s, Estonia became a nuclear-free country. The two land-based nuclear reactors of Soviet Navy nuclear submarine training centre in Paldiski were completely removed when Russia finally relinquished control of the nuclear reactor facilities in September 1995. There are no nuclear power stations in Estonia.

Japan

Nuclear-free Kobe Port, seen from Po-ai Shiosai Park in 2011

As a resource-poor nation, Japan is heavily reliant on nuclear power, but its unique experience in World War II has led to the wholesale rejection of nuclear weapons, holding nuclear weapons shall not be manufactured in, possessed by, or allowed entry into Japan. These tenets, known as the Three Non-Nuclear Principles, were first stated by Prime Minister Eisaku Satō in 1967, and were adopted as a parliamentary resolution in 1971, though they have never formally been entered into law. They continue to reflect the attitudes of both government and the general public, who remain staunchly opposed to the manufacture or use of nuclear weapons.

The Japan Self-Defense Forces have never made any attempt to manufacture or otherwise obtain nuclear arms, and no nuclear weapons are known to have been introduced into the Japanese Home Islands since the end of World War II. While the United States does not maintain nuclear bases within its military installations on the Home Islands, it is believed to have once stored weapons at Okinawa, which remained under US administrative jurisdiction until 1972.

Italy

Italy is a nuclear free zone since the Italian nuclear power referendum of November 1987. Following center-right parties' victory in the 2008 election, Italy's industry minister announced that the government scheduled the construction to start the first new Italian nuclear-powered plant by 2013. The announced project was paused in March 2011, after the Japanese earthquake, and scrapped after a referendum on 12–13 June 2011.

New Zealand

In 1984, Prime Minister David Lange barred nuclear-powered or nuclear-armed ships from using New Zealand ports or entering New Zealand waters. Under the New Zealand Nuclear Free Zone, Disarmament, and Arms Control Act 1987,[11][12] territorial sea and land of New Zealand became nuclear weapons and nuclear-powered ship free zones. It does not ban nuclear power stations. A research reactor was operated by the University of Canterbury until 1981. Official planning for a nuclear power station continued until the 1980s. A nuclear reactor provided electricity for McMurdo Station, in the New Zealand Antarctic Territory from 1962-1972.

The Act prohibits "entry into the internal waters of New Zealand 12 miles (22.2 km) radius by any ship whose propulsion is wholly or partly dependent on nuclear power" and bans the dumping of radioactive waste within the nuclear-free zone, as well as prohibiting any New Zealand citizen or resident "to manufacture, acquire, possess, or have any control over any nuclear explosive device."[12][13] Combined with the firm policy of the United States to "neither confirm nor deny" whether particular naval vessels carry nuclear weapons, the Act effectively bars these ships from entering New Zealand waters.[14]

New Zealand's security treaty with the United States, ANZUS, did not mention nuclear deterrence and did not require unconditional port access. However, after New Zealand refused entry to USS Buchanan, the United States government suspended its ANZUS obligations to New Zealand, seeing New Zealand's effective rejection of United States Navy vessels as voiding the treaty. The Lange Labour government did not see their stance as incompatible with the treaty and sought a compromise for over two years before passing the Act.[14] Support for the non-nuclear policy was bolstered by the perceived over-reaction of the United States and by the sinking of the Rainbow Warrior by French spies while docked in Auckland. According to some commentators, the legislation was a milestone in New Zealand's development as a nation and seen as an important act of sovereignty, self-determination and cultural identity.[15][16] New Zealand’s three decade anti-nuclear campaign is the only successful movement of its type in the world which resulted in the nation's nuclear-free zone status being enshrined in legislation.[17]

The nuclear-free zone law does not make building land-based nuclear power plants illegal. However, the relatively small electricity system, abundance of other resources to generate electricity, and public opposition has meant a nuclear power plant has never gone beyond the investigation phase – a nuclear power plant was proposed north of Auckland in the early 1970s, but the discovery of large natural gas reserves in Taranaki saw the proposal shelved.[18]

Nordic countries

Nuclear weapons-free Nordic (Finn. Ydinaseeton Pohjola) was an initiative by the President of Finland Urho Kekkonen for a nuclear weapons-free zone in the Nordic countries. The aim was to prevent the Nordic countries from becoming a nuclear battleground and a route for cruise missiles in the event of a nuclear war between the Soviet Union and NATO.

Nuclear energy, however, is used in both Finland and Sweden.

Palau

Palau adopted its first constitution in July 1979, stating that the Micronesian country would be "nuclear-free". The United States told the Palauan government that this constitution was likely incompatible with the Compact of Free Association. The Palauan government submitted a revised version of the constitution without the "nuclear-free" clause the following October. The Palauan people rejected the revised document and instated the original constitution in July 1980.[1] Seven years later, however, the Palauan people voted to overturn their nuclear-free status out of "economic survival".[19]

United Kingdom

The Nuclear Free Zone Movement in the United Kingdom was very strong in early 1980s; up to 200 local authorities including County councils, District councils and City councils such as the Greater London Council (GLC) (before its abolition) declared themselves to be 'nuclear free'. The first 'Nuclear Free Zone' in the UK was Manchester City Council in 1980 - this still exists to this day. Wales became 'nuclear free' on 23 February 1982 after Clwyd County Council declared itself 'nuclear free' and the Nuclear Free Wales Declaration was made. This policy was legally underpinned by Section 137 of the Local Government Act, which allowed local authorities to spend a small amount on whatever members considered was in the interest of their area or a part of their area.

UK nuclear-free local authorities refused to take part in civil defence exercises relating to nuclear war, which they thought were futile. The non-cooperation of the nuclear-free zone authorities was the main reason for the cancellation of the national 'Hard Rock' civil defence exercise in July 1982. In England and Wales 24 of the 54 County Councils refused to participate and seven more co-operated only in a half-hearted way.[20] This has been seen as a victory for the British Peace movement against the policies of Margaret Thatcher. Generally, nuclear-free zones were predominantly Labour Party controlled Councils but Liberal Party and even a few Conservative Party Councillors were often active in this respect too.

United States

A pair of billboards in Davis, California advertising its nuclear-free policy.

A number of towns, cities and counties in the United States established themselves as Nuclear-Free Zones in the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s. The first was Missoula, Montana. In the November 1978 general election, Missoula voters overwhelmingly approved a ballot initiative in the form of a land-use ordinance establishing the entirety of Missoula County as a "'nuclear free' zoning district" banning all nuclear facilities except those for medical purposes. (In the same election, Montana voters approved a statewide initiative by a 2-1 margin barring nuclear facilities or reactors without strict state-enforced regulatory standards and ratification by popular referendum, and in a follow-up 1980 initiative, Montanans narrowly voted to ban the disposal of nuclear waste.) That Missoula's measure was originally drafted as a zoning ordinance legally enforceable by the county planning department apparently created the popular term "Nuclear Free Zone" adopted as the name of the local political action group sponsoring the initiative and later used by other jurisdictions worldwide.[21]

Subsequently, the tiny town of Garrett Park, Maryland, attracted worldwide attention with its referendum in May, 1982. The following year, Takoma Park, Maryland, was officially declared a nuclear-free zone in 1983 by then-mayor Sam Abbott. A citizen committee of the local city council continues to monitor city contracts. The city cannot hold contracts with any company associated with any aspect of nuclear weapons without a waiver from the citizen committee. In September 2005, Takoma Park took a stand against the transportation of high-level nuclear waste through the City. It voted to amend its Nuclear-Free Zone Ordinance to give its citizen committee responsibility to collect information and from this information and from consultations with individuals and organizations involved in the transportation of high-level nuclear waste, to advise the City on how to promote the safety and welfare of its citizens from harmful exposure to high-level nuclear waste.[22]

Another well-known nuclear-free community is Berkeley, California, whose citizens passed the Nuclear Free Berkeley Act in 1986 which allows the city to levy fines for nuclear weapons-related activity and to boycott companies involved in the United States nuclear infrastructure. The City of Berkeley has posted signs at city limits proclaiming its nuclear free status. The ordinance specifies possible fines for such activities within its borders. The University of California, Berkeley is deeply involved in the history of nuclear weapons, and the University of California system until recently managed operations at Los Alamos National Laboratory, a U.S. nuclear weapons design laboratory, and continues to manage the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. At the time of the passage of the act, the University operated a nuclear reactor for research purposes, the Etcheverry Reactor, which it continued to operate after the act went into effect. The University of California, as a state institution, is not subject to Berkeley's municipal regulations, including the ban. Berkeley also has major freeway and train lines which are used in transporting nuclear materials.

On November 14, 1984 the Davis, California City Council declared the city to be a nuclear-free zone.[23] Davis has major freeway and train arteries running through it which are used for transporting nuclear materials. The University of California, with a campus at Davis, runs a research reactor at the nearby former McClellan Air Force Base, as well as workers who are involved with Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory.

On November 8, 1988 the city of Oakland, California passed "Measure T" with 57% of the vote, making that city a nuclear free zone. Under Ordinance No. 11062 CMS then passed on December 6, 1988, the city is restricted from doing business with "any entity knowingly engaged in nuclear weapons work and any of its agents, subsidiaries or affiliates which are engaged in nuclear weapons work."[24] The measure was invalidated in federal court, on the grounds that it interfered with the Federal Government's constitutional authority over national defense and atomic energy.[25][26] The issue being Oakland is a major port, and like Berkeley, and Davis, has major freeway and train arteries running through it. In 1992, the Oakland City Council unanimously reinstated modified elements of the older ordinance, reportedly bringing the total number of Nuclear Free Zones in the United States at that time to 188, with a total population of over 17 million in 27 states.[27]

Other cities, counties, and other governments within the United States passing nuclear free zone ordinances and the date of adoption, when known:

See also

References

  1. 1 2 Clark, Roger; Roff, Sue Rabbitt (1984). Micronesia: the problem of Palau (Rev. ed. ed.). London: Minority Rights Group. p. 13. ISBN 9780946690145.
  2. ↑ Lange, David (1990). Nuclear Free: The New Zealand Way. New Zealand: Penguin Books.
  3. ↑ "Nuclear-free city? Afraid no". Brisbane Times. March 18, 2009. Retrieved 6 Feb 2014.
  4. ↑ "[Untitled leaflet]" (PDF). Australian Nuclear Free Zones and Toxic Industries Secretariat. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 February 2014.
  5. ↑ Zwentendorf - location
  6. ↑ "Coalition of Nuclear-Free Countries". WISE News Communique. September 26, 1997. Archived from the original on February 23, 2006. Retrieved 2006-05-19.
  7. ↑ Archived September 10, 2011, at the Wayback Machine.
  8. ↑ "Austria and Czech Republic divided over nuclear power". BBC News. January 4, 2012.
  9. ↑ Nucléaire: l'Autriche se débranche dès 2015
  10. ↑ EnergyBC: Nuclear Power
  11. ↑ New Zealand Nuclear Free Zone, Disarmament, and Arms Control Act 1987
  12. 1 2 Nuclear Free Zone
  13. ↑ New Zealand Nuclear Free Zone Extension Bill - Green Party
  14. 1 2 Pugh, Michael Charles (1989). The ANZUS Crisis, Nuclear Visiting and Deterrence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–2. ISBN 0-521-34355-0.
  15. ↑ "Lange's impact on NZ and world". BBC News. August 14, 2005. Retrieved May 20, 2010.
  16. ↑ Nuclear threat continues to grow, New Zealand warns on anniversary of anti-nuclear law - International Herald Tribune
  17. ↑ Lange, David (1990). Nuclear Free: The New Zealand Way. New Zealand: Penguin Books.
  18. ↑ "Nuclear Energy Prospects in New Zealand". World Nuclear Association. April 2009. Retrieved 2009-12-09.
  19. ↑ "Palau Drops Nuclear-Free Status". The New York Times (AP). 7 August 1987. Retrieved 22 April 2016.
  20. ↑ Bolsover, Philip, "A victory - and a new development", in Minnion, J., and Bolsover, P., The CND Story, London: Alison and Busby, 1983
  21. ↑ For more on the Missoula zoning ordinance, see Missoula Independent, Nov. 30, 2000, at: http://missoulanews.bigskypress.com/missoula/reading-the-sign/Content?oid=1133059. For the zoning ordinance text as updated in 2007, see Missoula County, MT Nuclear Free Zone, at: http://greenpolicy360.net/index.php?title=Missoula_County%2C_MT_Nuclear_Free_Zone
  22. ↑ For more on Takoma Park's nuclear-free history see: http://www.takomaparkmd.gov/committees/nfz/nftpc.htm
  23. ↑ Nuclear Free Zone - Davis Wiki
  24. ↑ Schedule P, City of Oakland, rev. 7/30/01 Archived May 26, 2011, at the Wayback Machine.
  25. ↑ A Nuclear-Free Zone Is Ruled to Be Invalid, New York Times/AP, 4/28/90
  26. ↑ Guardian (US), 23 May 1990, p7, via WISE Nuclear Issues Information Service Archived June 11, 2009, at the Wayback Machine.
  27. ↑ Oakland City Council Reinstates Nuclear-Free Policy, US Newswire 7/3/92, via Highbeam
  28. ↑ " ARCATA NUCLEAR WEAPONS FREE ZONE ACT
  29. ↑ Boulder Revised Code Chapter 6-8: Nuclear Free Zone, via Colorado Code Publishing Company Archived June 14, 2009, at the Wayback Machine.
  30. ↑ The Company As Target, Ronnie Dugger, New York Times Magazine, 9/20/87
  31. ↑ Signs announcing Cleveland Heights as Nuclear Free Zone: Whatever happened to ...? | cleveland.com
  32. ↑ Town of East Windsor Nuclear Free Zone Ordinance
  33. 1 2 3 Meiklejohn Civil Liberties Institute Archives: Human Rights and Peace Law Docket 1945-1993
  34. ↑ Town of Garrett Park: History
  35. ↑ Ordinance No. 87-024, An Ordinance Establishing Nuclear Free Hayward Archived December 29, 2010, at the Wayback Machine.
  36. ↑ press-citizen- Iowa City to replace missing signs
  37. ↑ Marin County Code, Chapter 23.12: Nuclear-Free Zone
  38. ↑ Peace Magazine, Mar 1985 The article adds that 14 of 16 ballot measures passed in the 1984 general election, and that there were 80 US NFZs at that time.
  39. ↑ Nuclear free Reno
  40. ↑ Native lands becoming nuclear free zones in US. Via WISE Nuclear Issues Information Service Archived June 11, 2009, at the Wayback Machine.
  41. ↑ COUNCIL POLICY 11.4: DECLARING THE CITY OF SANTA CRUZ A NUCLEAR FREE ZONE Archived November 18, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.
  42. ↑ UMB Langsdale Library WMAR-TV News Collection Archived September 1, 2006, at the Wayback Machine.

External links

Wikisource has original text related to this article:
This article is issued from Wikipedia - version of the Friday, April 29, 2016. The text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share Alike but additional terms may apply for the media files.