Nuclear decommissioning

Example of decommissioning work underway.

The reactor pressure vessel being transported away from the site for burial.

Nuclear decommissioning is the process whereby a nuclear power plant site is dismantled to the point that it no longer requires measures for radiation protection. The presence of radioactive material necessitates processes that are occupationally dangerous, hazardous to the natural environment, expensive, and time-intensive.^[1]

Decommissioning is an administrative and technical process. It includes clean-up of radioactive materials and progressive demolition of the plant. Once a facility is fully decommissioned, no radiologic danger should persist. The costs of decommissioning are spread over the lifetime of a facility and saved in a decommissioning fund.^[2] After a facility has been completely decommissioned, it is released from regulatory control and the plant licensee is no longer responsible for its nuclear safety. Decommissioning may proceed all the way to "greenfield" status.

Options

The International Atomic Energy Agency has defined three options for decommissioning:

• Immediate Dismantling (Early Site Release/DECON in the US): This option allows for the facility to be removed from regulatory control relatively soon after shutdown or termination of regulated activities. Final dismantling or decontamination activities begin within a few months or years, and depending on the facility, it could take five years or more.^[3] Following removal from regulatory control, the site becomes available for re-use.^[4]
• Safe Enclosure (or Safestor(e) SAFSTOR): This option postpones the final removal of controls for a longer period, usually on the order of 40 to 60 years. The facility is placed into a safe storage configuration until the eventual dismantling and decontamination activities occur.^[5]
• Entombment/ENTOMB: This option entails placing the facility into a condition that will allow the remaining radioactive material to remain on-site indefinitely. This option usually involves reducing the size of the area where the radioactive material is located and then encasing the facility in a long-lived material such as concrete, theoretically preventing a release of radioactive material.^[6]

Experience

A wide range of nuclear facilities have been decommissioned so far. This includes nuclear power plants (NPPs), research reactors, isotope production plants, particle accelerators, and uranium mines. The number of decommissioned power plants is small. Companies specialize in nuclear decommissioning; decommissioning has become a profitable business. More recently, construction and demolition companies in the UK have also begun to develop nuclear decommissioning services. The current estimate by the United Kingdom's Nuclear Decommissioning Authority is that it will cost at least £100 billion to decommission the 19 existing United Kingdom nuclear sites.^[7] Due to the radioactivity in the reactor structure, decommissioning takes place in stages. The plans of the Nuclear Decommissioning Authority for decommissioning reactors have an average 50 year time frame. The long time frame makes reliable cost estimates difficult. Cost overruns are common even for quick projects.

North America

The Pickering Nuclear Generating Station, viewed from the west. All eight reactors are visible; two units have been shut down

Most nuclear plants currently operating in the United States were designed for a life of about 30–40 years^[8] and are licensed to operate for 40 years by the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission.^[9] The average age of these reactors is 32 years.^[9] Many are coming to the end of their licensing period. If their licenses are not renewed, the plants must go through a decontamination and decommissioning process.^[8][10]

Several nuclear reactors dismantled in North America, type, power, and decommissioning cost:^[11][12][13]

Dismantled nuclear reactors in Canada & USA
Country:	Location:	Reactor type:	Operative life:	Decommissioning phase:	Dismantling costs:
Canada (Québec)	Gentilly-1	CANDU-BWR 250 MWe	180 days (between 1966 and 1973)	"Static state" since 1986[14][15][16]	stage two: $25 million
Canada (Ontario)	Pickering NGS Units A2 and A3	CANDU-PWR 8 x 542 MWe	30 years (from 1974 to 2004)	Two units currently in "cold standby" Decommissioning to begin in 2020 [17][18]	(calculated: $270–430/kWe ?)
United States	Fort St. Vrain	HTGR (helium-graphite) 380 MWe	12 years (1977–1989)	Immediate Decon	$195 million
USA	Rancho Seco[19]	Multiunit: PWR 913 MWe	12 years (Closed after a referendum in 1989)	SAFSTOR: 5–10 years completion 2018	? ($200–500/kWe)[20]
USA	Three Mile Island 2	Multiunit: 913 MWe PWR	INCIDENT: core fusion (in 1979)	Post-Defuelling Phase 2 (1979)	$805 Million (estimated)[21]
USA	Shippingport	(The first BWR) 60 MWe	25 years (closed in 1989)	Decon completed dismantled in 5 years (first small experimental reactor)	$98.4 million[22]
USA	Piqua(Ohio)	OCM (Organically Cooled/Moderated) reactor 46 MWe[23]	2 years (closed in 1966)	ENTOMB (coolant design inadequate for neutron flux)	?
USA	Trojan	PWR 1,180 MWe	16 years (Closed in 1993 because nearby to seismic fault)	SAFSTOR (cooling tower demolished in 2006)	?[24]
USA	Yankee Rowe	PWR 185 MWe	31 years (1960–1991)	Decon completed - Demolished (greenfield open to visitors) [25]	$608 million with $8 million per year upkeep
USA	Maine Yankee	PWR 860 MWe	24 years (closed in 1996)	Decon completed - Demolished in 2004 (greenfield open to visitors) [26][27]	$635 million[28]
USA	Connecticut Yankee	PWR 590 MWe	28 years (closed in 1996)	Decon - Demolished in 2007 (greenfield open to visitors) [29]	$820 million[30]
USA	Exelon - Zion 1 & 2	PWR - Westinghouse 2 x 1040 MWe	25 years (1973–1998) (Incident in proceedings, abandoned because of the excessive cost of vaporizers substitution)	SAFSTOR-EnergySolutions (opening of the site to visitors for 2018) [31]	$900–1,100 million (2007 dollars)[32]
USA	Pacific Gas & Electric - Humboldt Bay Nuclear Power Plant - Unit 3	BWR 1 x 63 MWe	13 years (1963–1976) (Shut down due to seismic retrofit)	On July 2, 1976, Humboldt Bay Power Plant (HBPP) Unit 3 was shut down for annual refueling and to conduct seismic modifications. In 1983, updated economic analyses indicated that restarting Unit 3 would probably not be cost-effective, and in June 1983, PG&E announced its intention to decommission the unit. On July 16, 1985, the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) issued Amendment No. 19 to the HBPP Unit 3 Operating License to change the status to possess-but-not-operate, and the plant was placed into a SAFSTOR status.	Unknown - Closure date: 12/31/2015[33]

Asia

Reactors not located in Japan

Several nuclear reactors dismantled in Asia, type, power and decommissioning cost per kilowatt of electric power (source: World Nuclear Association)^[34]

Dismantled reactors in Asia
Country:	Location:	Reactor type:	Operative life:	Decommissioning phase:	Dismantling cost:
China[35]	Beijing (CIAE)	HWWR 10 MWe (multipurpose) (Heavy Water Experimental Reactor for the production of plutonium and tritium)	49 years (1958–2007)	SAFSTOR & Decon in 20 years (until 2027)	proposed: $6 Million for dismantling $5 Million for fuel remotion
North Korea	Yongbyon	Magnox-type (reactor for the production of nuclear weapons through PUREX treatment)	20 years (1985–2005) Deactivated after a treaty[36][37]	SAFSTOR: cooling tower dismantled	?
India[38][39]	Tarapur-1,2 (Maharashtra)	2x BWR 160 MWe	40 years ? (1969–2009?)	NOT deactivated	?
India[40]	Rawatbhata Atomic Power Station-1,2 (Rajasthan)	1x PHWR 100 MWe 1x PHWR 200 MWe (similar to CANDU)	40 years ? (1970–2011?)	NOT deactivated	?
Iraq	Osiraq/Tammuz-1[41]	BWR 40 MWe Nuclear reactor with weapons-grade plutonium production capability	(Destroyed by Israeli Air Force in 1981)	Not radioactive: never refurbished with uranium	?

Japan

The three damaged reactors at Fukushima Dai-ichi #1,#2,#3 are expected to be decommissioned as well as #4.

Heavily damaged reactors in Japan[42]
Nuclear Power Plant	Electric max. output (MW)	Type	Connection to electric grid	Situation	Decommissioning costs
Fukushima Dai-ichi NPP (Unit 1)	439	BWR	November 17, 1970	nuclear meltdown [43][44][45][46][47][48][49][50] Hydrogen explosion (INES 7) [51][52]	? Estimated at ¥10 trillion (US$ 100 billion) for decontaminating Fukushima and dismantling all reactors in Japan and considering long time damage to environment and economy, including agriculture, cattle breeding, fishery, water depuration, tourism (without considering further health care spending & reduction of life expectancy).[53]
Fukushima Dai-ichi NPP (Unit 2)	760	BWR	December 24, 1973	partial nuclear meltdown (INES 6) (Risk of going into INES 7)[54][55][56]	?
Fukushima Dai-ichi NPP (Unit 3)	760	BWR	October 26, 1974	nuclear meltdown Hydrogen explosion (INES 7) [57]	?
Fukushima Dai-ichi NPP (Unit 4)	760	BWR	February 24, 1978	Reactor defuelled when tsunami hit Damage to spent fuel cooling-pool (INES 4) (Could worsen if pool collapses) [58][59][60][61][62][63] (Other specialists disagree about this danger) [64][65]	?
Fukushima Dai-ichi NPP (Unit 5)	760	BWR	September 22, 1977	SCRAM	?
Fukushima Daiichi NPP (Unit 6)	1067	BWR	May 4, 1979	SCRAM	?
Fukushima Daini NPP (Unit 1 ) [66]	1067	BWR	July 31, 1981	SCRAM (leakage of coolant) [67]	?
Fukushima Daini NPP (Units 2 - 4)	3 × 1067	BWR	June 23, 1983 December 14, 1984 December 17, 1986	3 x SCRAM	?
Tokai NPP (Reactor 2)	1100 MW	BWR/5[68]	November 28, 1978	SCRAM Shutdown since March 2011 (anti-tsunami barrier stopped the waves) INES 1 (leakage of coolant) [69]	?

Safely decommissioned reactors in Japan[42]
Nuclear Power Plant	Electric max. output (MW)	Type	Connection to electric grid	Situation	Decommissioning costs
Tokai NPP (Reactor 1)	160 MWe	Magnox (GCR)	(1966–1998)	Safstore: 10 years[70][71] then decon until 2018	¥93 billion[72] (€660 million of 2003)

Western Europe and Former Yugoslavia

Several nuclear reactors dismantled in Western Europe, type, power and decommissioning cost per kilowatt of power: European Union Website about Nuclear Decommissioning,^[73] World Nuclear Association (reactor building companies),^[74] United Kingdom.^[75]

Safely decommissioned reactors in Western Europe[42]
Country:	Location:	Reactor type:	Operative Life:	Decommissioning phase:	Dismantling cost:
Austria[76] (Nuclear Free Country)[77]	Zwentendorf NPP Google Maps	PWR 723 MWe	Never activated due to referendum in 1978[78]	?	?
Belgium	SCK•CEN - BR3, located at Mol, Belgium	PWR (BR-3)	25 years (1962–1987)	Decon completed (2011)[79][80] European pilot project (underwater cutting and remote operated tools) [81][82]	?
France [83]	Brennilis	HWGCR 70 MWe	12 years (1967–1979)	Phase 3	€480 million (20 times the forecasted amount)
France	Bugey-1	UNGG Gas cooled, graphite moderator	1972–1994	postponed	?
France	Chinon 1,2,3	Gas-graphite	(1973–1990)	postponed	?
France	Chooz-A	PWR 300 MW	24 years (1967–1991)	Fully decommissioned - Greenfield [84][85][86] (Nuclear reactor was located inside a mountain cave)	?
France	Saint-Laurent Nuclear Power Plant	Gas-graphite	1969–1992 50 kg of Uranium in one of the reactors at the Saint-Laurent Nuclear Power Plant began to melt, an event classified at 'level 4' on the International Nuclear Event Scale (INES).[87] As of March 2011, this is the most serious civil nuclear power accident in France.[88]	postponed	?
France	Rapsodie at Cadarache	Experimental Fast breeder nuclear reactor (sodium-cooled) 40 MWe	15 years (1967–1983)	1983: Defuelling 1987: Remotion of neutron reflectors 1985-1989: Decontamination of sodium coolant Accident when cleaning residual sodium in vessel with ethyl carbitol (March 31° 1994)	The removed activity is estimated to around 4800 TBq. 600 TBq (^60Co) in 1990 still contained in 1ry vessel The dose burden from 1987 to 1994 was 224 mSv. RAPSODIE reached IAEA level 2 of decomm in 2005 STAGE 3 is planned in 2020[89]
France	Phénix at Marcoule	Experimental Fast breeder nuclear reactor (sodium-cooled) 233 MWe	36 years (1973–2009) [90]	1) Defuelled	estimated for the future: $4000/kWe
France	Superphénix at Creys-Malville	Fast breeder nuclear reactor (sodium-cooled)	11 years (1985–1996) [91]	1) Defuelled 2) Extraction of Sodium [92] Pipe cutting with a robot [93][94]	estimated for the future: $4000/kWe
United Kingdom	Berkeley	Magnox (2 x 138 MWe)	27 years (1962–1989)	SAFSTOR: 30 years (internal demolition)	$2600/kWe
United Kingdom	Sellafield-Windscale	Windscale Advanced Gas Reactor WAGR (32 MWe)	18 years (1963–1981)	Remotion of reactor in 2009 pilot project (cutting with remote controlled robots, UV lasers)[81][95][96][97]	More than $2600/kWe (WNI estimates) So far €117 million
United Kingdom	Dorset -Winfrith Operated in Dorset from 1958 to 1990. Had 9 reactors all mostly dismantled[98] [99]
West Germany	Gundremmingen-A	BWR 250 MWe	11 years	Immediate dismantling pilot project (underwater cutting)	(~ $300–550/kWe)
Italy	Caorso NPP	BWR 840 MWe[100][101]	3 years (1978 - Closed in 1987 after referendum in 1986)	SAFSTOR: 30 years (internal demolition)	€450 million (dismantling) + €300 million (fuel reprocessing)[102][103][104][105]
Italy	Garigliano NPP (Caserta)	BWR 150 MWe[106]	? (Closed on March 1, 1982)	SAFSTOR: 30 years (internal demolition)	?
Italy	Latina NPP (Foce Verde)	Magnox 210 MWe Gas-graphite[107]	24 years (1962 - Closed in 1986 after referendum)	SAFSTOR: 30 years (internal demolition)	?
Italy	Trino Vercellese NPP	PWR Westinghouse, 270 MWe[108]	? (Closed in 1986 after referendum)	SAFSTOR: 30 years (internal demolition)	?
Netherlands	Dodewaard NPP	BWR Westinghouse 58 MWe[109]	28 years (1969–1997)	Defuelling completed SAFSTOR: 40 years	?
Spain	Vandellós NPP-1	UNGG 480 MWe (gas-graphite)	18 years Incident: fire in a turbogenerator (1989)	SAFSTOR: 30 years (internal demolition)	Phases 1 and 2: €93 million
Sweden	Barsebäck NPP 1 & 2	BWR 2 x 615 MW	Reactor 1: 24 years 1975 - 1999 Reactor 2: 28 years 1977 - 2005	SAFSTOR: demolition will begin in 2020	The Swedish Radiation Safety Authority has assessed that the costs for decommissioning and final disposal for the Swedish nuclear power industry may be underestimated by SKB by at least 11 billion Swedish crowns ($1.63 billion)[110]
Switzerland[111]	DIORIT	MWe Gas-graphite (experimental)	?	SAFSTOR (internal demolition)	?
Switzerland	LUCENS	8,3 MWe CO2-heavy water (experimental)	(1962–1969) Incident: fire in 1969	Entombment for ? years SAFSTOR & Decon: 24 years (internal demolition)	?
Switzerland	SAPHIR	0,01-0,1 MWe (Light water pool)	39 years (1955–1994) (Experimental demonstrator)	In public display since inauguration	?

• Repository for radioactive waste Morsleben: €2.2 billion

Eastern Europe and former Soviet Union

Several nuclear reactors dismantled in the nations born from the former Soviet Union: (Belarus, Russia, Ukraine and others) and reactors dismantled in countries formerly belonging to "Warsaw Pact" and/or to "Comecon", type, electric power and decommissioning cost per kilowatt of power: World Nuclear Association,^[112] OSTI (Russia & USA).^[13]

Decommissioned reactors in Eastern Europe
Country:	Location:	Reactor typr:	Operative life:	Decommissioning phase:	Dismantling cost:
Bulgaria	Kozloduy NPP-1,2,3,4[113]	PWR VVER-440 (4 x 408 MWe)	Reactors 1,2 closed in 2003, reactors 3,4 closed in 2006 (Closing forced by European Union)	De-fuelling	?
East Germany	Greifswald NPP-1, 2,3,4,5,6	VVER-440 5 x 408 MWe	Reactors 1-5 closed in 1989/1990, reactor 6: finished but never operated	Immediate dismantling (underwater cutting)	~ $330/kWe
East Germany	Rheinsberg NPP-1	VVER-210 70–80 MWe	24 years (1966–1990)	In dismantling since 1996 Safstor (underwater cutting)	~ $330/kWe
East Germany	Stendal NPP-1,2,3,4	VVER-1000 (4 x 1000 MWe)	Never activated (1st reactor 85% completed)	Not radioactive (Cooling towers demolished with explosives)	? (Structure in exhibition inside an industrial park)
Russia	Mayak[114] (Chelyabinsk-65)	PUREX plant for uranium enrichment	Several severe incidents (1946–1956)	?	?
Russia	Seversk[115] (Tomsk-7)	Three plutonium reactors Plant for uranium enrichment	Two fast-breeder reactors closed (of three), after disarmaments agreements with USA in 2003.[116]	?	?
Slovakia	Jaslovske Bohunice NPP-1,2 (180 km east from Vienna)[117][118]	VVER 440/230 2 X 440 MWe	(1978–2006) (1980–2008)	?	?
Ukraine	Chernobyl NPP-4 (110 km from Kiev)	RBMK-1000 1000 MWe	hydrogen explosion, then graphite fire (1986) (INES 7)	ENTOMBMENT (armed concrete "sarcophagus")	Past: ? Future: riding sarcophagus in steel[119]

Legal aspects

The decommission of a nuclear reactor can only take place after the appropriate licence has been granted pursuant to the relevant legislation. As part of the licensing procedure, various documents, reports and expert opinions have to be written and delivered to the competent authority, e.g. safety report, technical documents and an environmental impact study (EIS).

In the European Union these documents are the basis for the environmental impact assessment (EIA) according to Council Directive 85/337/EEC. A precondition for granting such a licence is an opinion by the European Commission according to Article 37 of the Euratom Treaty. Article 37 obliges every Member State of the European Union to communicate certain data relating to the release of radioactive substances to the Commission. This information must reveal whether and if so what radiological impacts decommissioning – planned disposal and accidental release – will have on the environment, i.e. water, soil or airspace, of the EU Member States.^[120] On the basis of these general data, the Commission must be in a position to assess the exposure of reference groups of the population in the nearest neighbouring states.

Cost

In USA many utility estimates now average $325 million per reactor all-up (1998 $).

In France, decommissioning of Brennilis Nuclear Power Plant, a fairly small 70 MW power plant, already cost €480 million (20x the estimate costs) and is still pending after 20 years. Despite the huge investments in securing the dismantlement, radioactive elements such as plutonium, caesium-137 and cobalt-60 leaked out into the surrounding lake.^[121][122]

In the UK, decommissioning of the Windscale Advanced Gas Cooled Reactor (WAGR), a 32 MW prototype power plant, cost €117 million.

In Germany, decommissioning of Niederaichbach nuclear power plant, a 100 MW power plant, amounted to more than €143 million.

New methods for decommissioning have been developed in order to minimize the usual high decommissioning costs. One of these methods is in situ decommissioning (ISD), meaning that the reactor is entombed instead of dismantled. This method was implemented at the U.S. Department of Energy Savannah River Site in South Carolina for the closures of the P and R Reactors. With this tactic, the cost of decommissioning both reactors was $73 million. In comparison, the decommissioning of each reactor using traditional methods would have been an estimated $250 million. This results in a 71% decrease in cost by using ISD.^[123]

Decommissioning funds

In Europe there is considerable concern over the funds necessary to finance final decommissioning. In many countries either the funds do not appear sufficient to cover decommissioning and in other countries decommissioning funds are used for other activities, putting decommissioning at risk, and distorting competition with parties who do not have such funds available.^[124]

In 2016 the European Commission assessed that European Union's nuclear decommissioning liabilities were seriously underfunded by about 118 billion euros, with only 150 billion euros of earmarked assets to cover 268 billion euros of expected decommissioning costs covering both dismantling of nuclear plants and storage of radioactive parts and waste. France had the largest shortfall with only 23 billion euros of earmarked assets to cover 74 billion euros of expected costs.^[125]

Similar concerns exist in the United States, where the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission has located apparent decommissioning funding assurance shortfalls and requested 18 power plants to address that issue.^[126]

International collaboration

Organizations that promote the international sharing of information, knowledge, and experiences related to nuclear decommissioning include the International Atomic Energy Agency, the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development's Nuclear Energy Agency and the European Atomic Energy Community.^[11] In addition, an online system called the Deactivation and Decommissioning Knowledge Management Information Tool was developed under the United States Department of Energy and made available to the international community to support the exchange of ideas and information. The goals of international collaboration in nuclear decommissioning are to reduce decommissioning costs and improve worker safety.^[11]

Ships, mobile reactors, military reactors

Many warships and a few civil ships have used nuclear reactors for propulsion. Former Soviet and American warships have been taken out of service and their power plants removed or scuttled. Dismantling of Russian submarines and ships and American submarines and ships is ongoing. Marine power plants are generally smaller than land-based electrical generating stations.

See also

• Nuclear Decommissioning Authority
• Ship-Submarine recycling program
• Nuclear entombment
• Marcoule (French nuclear site)
• D&D KM-IT (Deactivation and Decommissioning Knowledge Management Information Tool)

References

1. Benjamin K. Sovacool. "A Critical Evaluation of Nuclear Power and Renewable Electricity in Asia", Journal of Contemporary Asia, Vol. 40, No. 3, August 2010, p. 373.
2. http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/fact-sheets/decommissioning.html Quote: Before a nuclear power plant begins operations, the licensee must establish or obtain a financial mechanism – such as a trust fund or a guarantee from its parent company – to ensure there will be sufficient money to pay for the ultimate decommissioning of the facility.
3. "Fact Sheets: Decommissioning Of Nuclear Power Plants". National Energy Institute. Retrieved 2014-06-19.
4. DECON: a method of decommissioning, in which structures, systems, and components that contain radioactive contamination are removed from a site and safely disposed at a commercially operated low-level waste disposal facility, or decontaminated to a level that permits the site to be released for unrestricted use shortly after it ceases operation.
5. SAFSTOR: a method of decommissioning in which a nuclear facility is placed and maintained in a condition that allows the facility to be safely stored and subsequently decontaminated (deferred decontamination) to levels that permit release for unrestricted use.
6. ENTOMB: a method of decommissioning, in which radioactive contaminants are encased in a structurally long-lived material, such as concrete. The entombed structure is maintained and surveillance is continued until the entombed radioactive waste decays to a level permitting termination of the license and unrestricted release of the property. During the entombment period, the licensee maintains the license previously issued by the NRC.
7. House of Commons Committee of Public Accounts (4 February 2013). "Nuclear Decommissioning Authority: Managing risk at Sellafield" (PDF). London: The Stationery Office Limited. Retrieved 2 Dec 2013.
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11. Nuclear Decommissioning article by World Nuclear Association (associaciation of nuclear reactors builders:
12. NRC: Locations of Power Reactor Sites Undergoing Decommissioning
13. OSTI: Appendix A - A Summary of the Shutdown and Decommissioning Experience for Nuclear Power Plants in the United States and the Russian Federation. Appendix B - A Summary of the Regulatory Environment for the Shutdown and Decommissioning of Nuclear Power Plants in the United States and the Russian Federation. Appendix C - Recommended Outlines for Decommissioning Documentation
14. IAEA: Taking Canada's Gentilly-1 to a "static state (by Balarko Gupta)
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30. SEC-INFORMATION: Connecticut Yankee The United Illuminating Company (UI), a wholly owned subsidiary of UIL Holdings Corporation (UIL), owns 9.5% of the equity of Connecticut Yankee Atomic Power Company. Connecticut Yankee has prepared a draft updated estimate of the cost of decommissioning its nuclear unit, as part of its transition to self performance of decommissioning. Connecticut Yankee's draft updated cost estimate includes an increase of approximately $270 million over the cost estimate reported in November 2002
31. With Exelon's Zion 1 & 2 reactors (2 x 1098 MWe) closed down in 1998 and in Safstor, a slightly different process is envisaged, considerably accelerating the decommissioning. Exelon has contracted with a specialist company - EnergySolutions, to remove the plant and return the site to greenfield status. To achieve this, the plant's licence and decommissioning funds will be transferred to EnergySolutions, which will then be owner and licensee, and the site will be returned to Exelon about 2018. Used fuel would remain on site until taken to the national repository.
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55. Highest hydrogen levels
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63. THE GUARDIAN: The Fukushima nuclear plant's slow recovery offers lessons to the US
64. Adam Curry Exposes Robert Alvarez’s Fukushima Spent Fuel Pool Fable on No Agenda
65. The Neutron Economy: Overheated rods & rhetoric
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External links

• UNITED STATES NUCLEAR REGULATORY COMMISSION: Backgrounder on Decommissioning Nuclear Power Plants
• Business Insider - UK: Getting Rid Of Old Nuclear Reactors Worldwide Is Going To Cost Way More Than People Think
• Germany's economy minister Sigmar Gabriel says state won't pay for nuclear decommissioning (May 18, 2014)
• Nuclear Decommissioning Report (www.ndreport.com) is the multi-media platform for the nuclear decommissioning industry.
• decommissioning.info is a portal with information on nuclear decommissioning
• US Nuclear Regulatory Commission
• European website on decommissioning of nuclear installations
• Decommissioning Fund Methodologies for Nuclear Installations in the EU, rapport by the German Wuppertal Institute, commissioned by the European Commission. May 2007.
• Master 'Nuclear Energy' - Decommissioning and Waste management