Occurrence and perceptions of mustaches

The mustache is the general term for the hair found on the upper lip, it may or may not be accompanied by a beard or other facial hair.

Mustache fashion through history

Like many other fashion trends, the mustache is subject to shifting popularity through time. Though modern culture often associates mustaches with men of the Victorian Era, Susan Walton shows that at the start of the Victorian Era facial hair was "viewed with distaste" and that the mustache was considered the mark of an artist or revolutionary, both of which remained on the social fringe at the time.[1] This is supported by the fact that only one member of parliament sported facial hair from the years 1841-1847.[1] However by the 1860s, this changes and mustaches become wildly popular even among distinguished men but by the end of the century facial hair became passé once more.[1] Though one cannot be entirely sure are to the cause of such changes, Walton speculates that the rise of the facial hair trend was due largely in part because the impending war against Russia, and the believe that mustaches and beards projected a more 'manly' image, which was brought about by the so-called 'rebranding' of the British military and the rehabilitation of military virtues.[1] Mustaches became a defining trait of the British soldier, as even late as 1908 no enlisted soldier was permitted to shave his upper lip.[2] However, the next generation of men perceived facial hair, such as mustaches, to be an outdated emblem of masculinity and therefore there was a dramatic decline in the mustache trend and a clean-shaven face became the mark of a modern man.[1]

Mustaches in relation to the marriage market

According to a study performed by Nigel Barber, results have shown a strong correlation between a good marriage market for women and an increased number of mustaches worn by the male population.[3] By comparing the number of males pictured in "Illustrated London News" sporting a mustache against the ratio of single women to single men, the similar trends in the two over the years would suggest that these two factors are correlated.[3] Barber suggests that this correlation may be due to the fact the men with mustaches are perceived to be more attractive, industrious, creative, masculine, dominant and mature by both men and women,[3] as supported by the research conducted by Hellström and Tekle.[4] Barber suggests that these perceived traits would influence a woman's choice of husband as they would suggest a high reproductive and biological qualities, and a capacity to invest in children, so when males must compete heavily for marriage they are more likely to grow a mustache in an attempt to project these qualities.[3] This theory is also supported by the correlation between beard fashion and women wearing long dresses, as shown by Robinson's study,[5] which then relates to the correlation between dress fashion and the marriage market, as shown in Barber's 1999 study.[6]

Mustaches in relation to the illegitimacy ratio

Barber's studies also show that when the illegitimacy ratio, that is, the ratio of illegitimate births in comparison to the number of total births, is high the number of mustaches within the population drops.[3] This negative correlation between mustaches and the illegitimacy ration would suggest that the illegitimacy ratio may also be a factor in the mustache trend within the population. Barber suggested that as facial expressions are heavily reliant on the mouth, being clean-shaven may give the impression that one's expressions are more readable and therefore more trustworthy, therefore those with no facial hair are perceived as being more trust worthy, which in a time where men outnumber available women, women tend to look for men who appear trustworthy.[3]

Mustaches in relation to age perception

The mustache and other forms of facial hair are globally understood to be signs of the post-pubescent male,[7] however those with mustaches are perceived to be older than those who are clean-shaven of the same age.[7] This was determined by manipulating a photo of six male subjects, with varying levels of baldness, to have mustaches and beards and then asking undergraduate college students to rate both the photos of the men with facial hair and without facial hair in terms of social maturity, aggression, age, appeasement, and attractiveness. Regardless of how bald the subject was, the results found in relation to the perception of mustaches remained constant. Although males with facial hair were perceived, in general, to be older than the same subject pictured without facial hair,[8] the mustached subjects were also perceived to be far less socially mature.[7] The decreased perception of social maturity of the mustached men may partially be due to the increase in the perception of aggression in the mustached men,[7] as aggression is incompatible with social maturity.[7]

Mustaches in the workplace

In a study performed by J.A. Reed and E.M. Blunk, persons in management positions were shown to perceive, and therefore be more likely to hire, men with facial hair.[9] Although men with beards over all scored better than men with only mustaches, the mustached men scored much higher than those men who were clean-shaven.[9] In this experiment 228 persons, both male and female, who held management positions that made hiring decisions were shown ink sketches of six male job applicants. The men in these ink sketches ranged from clean-shaven, to mustached, to bearded. A positive correlation between perception and facial hair. The men with facial hair were rated higher by the employers on aspects of masculinity, maturity, physical attractiveness, dominance, self-confidence, nonconformity, courage, industriousness, enthusiasm, intelligence, sincerity, and general competency.[9] The results were found to be fairly similar for both female and male employers, which Reed and Blunk suggest would imply that gender does not factor into one's perceptions of a mustache on a male applicant.[9] However, Blunk and Reed also stipulate that the meaning and acceptability of facial hair does change depending on the time period. However, the studies performed by Hellström & Tekle[4] and also the studies performed by Klapprott[10] would suggest that mustaches are not favorable to all professions as it has been shown that clean-shaven men are seen as more reliable in roles such as salesmen and professors. Other studies have suggested that acceptability of facial hair may vary depending on culture and location, as in a study conducted in Brazil, clean-shaven men were preferred by personnel managers over applicants who were bearded, goateed, or mustached.[11]

Mustaches in relation to various cultures

In western culture it has been shown that women dislike men who displayed a visible mustache or beard, but preferred men who had a visible hint of a beard such as a five o'clock shadow over those who were clean-shaven.[12] This supports the idea that in western cultures females prefer man who have the capability to cultivate facial hair, such as a mustache, but choose not to. However some researchers have suggested that it is possible that in ecologies in which physical aggressiveness is more adaptive than cooperation, bearded males might be preferred by women.[7] However, varying opinion on mustaches is not reserved to international cultural differences as even within the US there have been discrepancies observed on female preference of male facial hair as Freedman's study suggested that women studying at the University of Chicago preferred men with facial hair because they perceived them to be more masculine, sophisticated and mature than clean-shaven men.[13] Similarly, a study performed by Kenny and Fletcher at Memphis State University, which is largely a commuter school and usually is regarded as more conventional than the University of Chicago, suggested that men with facial hair such as mustaches and beards were perceived as stronger and more masculine by female students.[14] However, the study performed by Feinman and Gill would suggest that this reaction to facial hair is not nationwide as women studying in the state of Wyoming showed a marked preference for clean-shaven men over men with facial hair.[15] Some accredit this difference to the difference between region, rurality, and political and social conservatism between the various studies.[15] Thus it can be seen that even within the US there are slight variations in the perceptions of mustaches.

Mustaches in relation to various religions

In addition to various cultures, the perception of the mustache is also altered by religion as some religions support the growth of a mustache or facial hair in general, whereas others tend to reject those with mustaches, while many churches remain somewhat ambivalent on the subject.

Mormon

Though it is never explicitly stated by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints that all male members must be clean-shaven, within Mormon circles it is often considered "taboo" for men to have mustaches as the missionaries of the church are required to be clean-shaven, and this has become somewhat of a social norm within the church itself.[16] This often leads those members who do choose to wear mustaches feel somewhat like they do not quite fit the norm, and yet in the studies shown done by Nielsen and White, these men reportedly do not mind this feeling and that is why they continue to grow their facial hair.[16]

Islam

Growing a beard is a well-established tradition in many Muslim societies, even though facial grooming is never specifically addressed within the Qur'an, although it is mentioned in detail in the hadith (sayings of Muhammad).[17] This tradition of keeping a beard can often be traced back to Muhammad, as he did not completely shave his beard, and so many of his followers also choose to grow facial hair out of respect.[17] Moreover, Muhammad advised that men must grow beards, and as to mustaches, cut the taller hairs as to not let them cover the upper lips (as this is the Fitra—the origin).[18]

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 Walton, Susan (2008). "From Squalid Impropriety to Manly Respectability: The revival of Beards, Mustaches and Marital Values in the 1850s in England". Nineteenth-Century Contexts 30 (3): 229–245. doi:10.1080/08905490802347247.
  2. ↑ Skelly, A. R. (1977). The Victorian Army at Home: The Recruitment and Terms and Conditions of the British Regiment, 1859-1899. London: Croon Helm. p. 358.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Barber, Nigel (2001). "Mustache Fashion Covaries with a Good Marriage Market for Women". Journal of Nonverbal Behaviour 25 (4): 261–272.
  4. 1 2 Hellström, Åke; Tekle, Joseph (1997). "Person Perception Through Photographs: Effects of Glasses, Hair, and Beard on Judgements of Occupation and Personal Qualities". European Journal of Social Psychology 24 (6): 693–705. doi:10.1002/ejsp.2420240606.
  5. ↑ Robinson, D. E. (1979). "Fashions in Shaving and Trimming of the Beard: The Men of the Illustrated London News". American Journal of Sociology 81 (5): 1133–1141.
  6. ↑ Barber, Nigel (1999). "Women's Dress Fashion as a Function of Reproductive Strategies". Sex Roles 40 (5): 459–471. doi:10.1023/A:1018823727012.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Muscarella, F.; Cunningham, M.R. (1996). "The Evolutionary Significance and Social Perception of Male Pattern Baldness and Facial Hair". Ethology and Sociobiology 17 (2): 99–117. doi:10.1016/0162-3095(95)00130-1.
  8. ↑ Wogalter, Michael S.; Hosie, Judith A. (1991). "Effects of Cranial and Facial Hair on Perceptions of Age and Person". Journal of Social Psychology 131 (4): 589–591. doi:10.1080/00224545.1991.9713892.
  9. 1 2 3 4 Reed, J. Ann; Blunk, Elizabeth M. (1990). "The Influence of Facial Hair on Impression Formation". Social behavior & Personality: An International Journal 18 (1): 169–175. doi:10.2224/sbp.1990.18.1.169.
  10. ↑ Klapprott, Jürgen (1979). "Barba Facit Magistrum: An Investigation into the Effect of a Bearded University Teacher on His Students". Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Psychologie und ihre Anwendungen 35 (1): 16–27.
  11. ↑ De Souza, Altay Alves Lino; Baião, Ver Baumgarten Ulyssea; Otta, Emma (2003). "Perception of Men's Personal Qualities and Prospect of Employment as a Function of Facial Hair". Psychological Reports 92 (1): 201–208. doi:10.2466/pr0.2003.92.1.201.
  12. ↑ Cunningham, M. R.; Barbee, A. P.; Pike, C. L. (1990). "What do Women Want? Facialmetric Assessment of Multiple Motives in the Perception of Male Facial Physical Attractiveness". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 59 (1): 61–72. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.59.1.61.
  13. ↑ Freedman, D. (1969). "The Survival Value of the Beard". Psychology Today 3 (10): 36–39.
  14. ↑ Kenny, Charles T.; Fletcher, Dixie (1973). "Effects of Beardedness on Person Perception". Perceptual and Motor Skills 37 (2): 413–414. doi:10.2466/pms.1973.37.2.413.
  15. 1 2 Feinman, Saul; Gill, George W. (1977). "Female's Response to Male Beardedness". Perceptual and Motor Skills 44 (2): 533–534. doi:10.2466/pms.1977.44.2.533.
  16. 1 2 Nielsen, Michael E.; White, Daryl (2008). "Men's Grooming in the Latter-day Saints Church: A Qualitative Study of Norm Violation". Mental Health, Religion, and Culture 11 (8): 807–825. doi:10.1080/13674670802087286.
  17. 1 2 Calcasi, Karen; Gokmen, Mahmut (2011). "The face of Danger: Beards in the U.S. Media's Representation of Arabs, Muslims, and Middle Easterners". Aether: The Journal of Media Geography 8 (2): 82–96.
  18. ↑ Sahih Bukhari, Book 8, Volume 74, Hadith 312 (Asking Permission). Narrated Abu Huraira: The Prophet said "Five things are in accordance with Al Fitra (i.e. the tradition of prophets): to be circumcised, to shave the pelvic region, to pull out the hair of the armpits, to cut short the moustaches, and to clip the nails.'
This article is issued from Wikipedia - version of the Monday, January 04, 2016. The text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share Alike but additional terms may apply for the media files.