Pornography

For other uses, see Pornography (disambiguation).
"Porn" redirects here. For other uses, see Porn (disambiguation).

"Sexually explicit" redirects here. For non-pornographic sexually explicit media, see erotica.
XXX is used to designate pornographic material in the U.S. and other regions around the world

Pornography (often abbreviated as "porn" or "porno" in informal usage) is the portrayal of sexual subject matter for the purpose of sexual arousal. Pornography may be presented in a variety of media, including books, magazines, postcards, photographs, sculpture, drawing, painting, animation, sound recording, film, video, and video games. The term applies to the depiction of the act rather than the act itself, and so does not include live exhibitions like sex shows and striptease. The primary subjects of pornographic depictions are pornographic models, who pose for still photographs, and pornographic actors or porn stars, who perform in pornographic films. If dramatic skills are not involved, a performer in a porn film may also be called a model.

Various groups within society have considered depictions of a sexual nature immoral, addictive and noxious, labeling them pornographic, and attempting to have them suppressed under obscenity and other laws, with varying degrees of success. Such works have also often been subject to censorship and other legal restraints to publication, display or possession. Such grounds and even the definition of pornography have differed in various historical, cultural, and national contexts.[1]

Social attitudes towards the discussion and presentation of sexuality have become more tolerant and legal definitions of obscenity have become more limited, notably beginning in 1969 with Blue Movie by Andy Warhol, the first adult erotic film depicting explicit sex to receive wide theatrical release in the United States, and the subsequent Golden Age of Porn,[2][3][4] leading to an industry for the production and consumption of pornography in the latter half of the 20th century. The introduction of home video and the Internet saw a boom in the worldwide porn industry that generates billions of dollars annually. Commercialized pornography accounts for over US$2.5 billion in the United States alone,[5] including the production of various media and associated products and services. This industry employs thousands of performers along with support and production staff. It is also followed by dedicated industry publications and trade groups as well as the mainstream press, private organizations (watchdog groups), government agencies, and political organizations.[6] More recently, sites such as Pornhub, RedTube and YouPorn, have served as repositories for home-made or semi-professional pornography, made available free by its creators (who could be called exhibitionists). It has presented a significant challenge to the commercial pornographic film industry.

Irrespective of the legal or social view of pornography, it has been used in a number of contexts. It is used, for example, at fertility clinics to stimulate sperm donors. Some couples use pornography at times for variety and to create a sexual interest or as part of foreplay. There is also some evidence that pornography can be used to treat voyeurism.[7][8]

Etymology

The word is similar to the Modern Greek πορνογραφία (pornographia), which derives from the Greek words πόρνη (pornē "prostitute" and πορνεία porneia "prostitution"[9]), and γράφειν (graphein "to write or to record", derived meaning "illustration", cf. "graph"), and the suffix -ία (-ia, meaning "state of", "property of", or "place of"), thus meaning "a written description or illustration of prostitutes or prostitution". No date is known for the first use of the word in Greek; the earliest attested, most related word one could find in Greek, is πορνογράφος, pornographos, i.e. "someone writing of harlots", in the Deipnosophists of Athenaeus.[10][11] The Modern Greek word pornographia is a translation of the French pornographie.[12]

"Pornographie" was in use in the French language during the 1800s. The word did not enter the English language as the familiar word until 1857[13] or as a French import in New Orleans in 1842.[14]

History

For more details on this topic, see History of erotic depictions.
Oil lamp artifact depicting coitus more ferarum

Depictions of a sexual nature are older than civilization as depictions such as the venus figurines and rock art have existed since prehistoric times.[15] However, the concept of pornography as understood today did not exist until the Victorian era. For example, the French Impressionism painting by Édouard Manet titled Olympia was a nude picture of a French courtesan, literally a "prostitute picture". It was controversial at the time.

Nineteenth-century legislation eventually outlawed the publication, retail, and trafficking of certain writings and images regarded as pornographic and would order the destruction of shop and warehouse stock meant for sale; however, the private possession of and viewing of (some forms of) pornography was not made an offence until recent times.[16]

When large-scale excavations of Pompeii were undertaken in the 1860s, much of the erotic art of the Romans came to light, shocking the Victorians who saw themselves as the intellectual heirs of the Roman Empire. They did not know what to do with the frank depictions of sexuality and endeavored to hide them away from everyone but upper-class scholars. The moveable objects were locked away in the Secret Museum in Naples and what could not be removed was covered and cordoned off as to not corrupt the sensibilities of women, children, and the working classes.

Fanny Hill (1748) is considered "the first original English prose pornography, and the first pornography to use the form of the novel."[17] It is an erotic novel by John Cleland first published in England as Memoirs of a Woman of Pleasure.[18][19] It is one of the most prosecuted and banned books in history.[20] The authors were charged with "corrupting the King's subjects."

The world's first law criminalizing pornography was the English Obscene Publications Act 1857 enacted at the urging of the Society for the Suppression of Vice. The Act, which applied to the United Kingdom and Ireland, made the sale of obscene material a statutory offence, giving the courts power to seize and destroy offending material. The American equivalent was the Comstock Act of 1873[21][22] which made it illegal to send any "obscene, lewd, and/or lascivious" materials through the mail. The English Act did not apply to Scotland, where the common law continued to apply. However, neither the English nor the United States Act defined what constituted "obscene", leaving this for the courts to determine. Prior to the English Act, the publication of obscene material was treated as a common law misdemeanour[23] and effectively prosecuting authors and publishers was difficult even in cases where the material was clearly intended as pornography.

The Victorian attitude that pornography was for a select few can be seen in the wording of the Hicklin test stemming from a court case in 1868 where it asks, "whether the tendency of the matter charged as obscenity is to deprave and corrupt those whose minds are open to such immoral influences." Despite the fact of their suppression, depictions of erotic imagery were common throughout history.[24]

Pornographic film production commenced almost immediately after the invention of the motion picture in 1895. Two of the earliest pioneers were Eugène Pirou and Albert Kirchner. Kirchner directed the earliest surviving pornographic film for Pirou under the trade name "Léar". The 1896 film, Le Coucher de la Mariée showed Louise Willy performing a striptease. Pirou's film inspired a genre of risqué French films showing women disrobing and other filmmakers realised profits could be made from such films.[25][26]

Sexually explicit films opened producers and distributors to prosecution. Those that were made were produced illicitly by amateurs starting in the 1920s, primarily in France and the United States. Processing the film was risky as was their distribution. Distribution was strictly private.[27][28] In 1969, Denmark became the first country to abolish censorship, thereby decriminalizing pornography, which led to an explosion in investment and of commercially produced pornography. However, it continued to be banned in other countries, and had to be smuggled in, where it was sold "under the counter" or (sometimes) shown in "members only" cinema clubs.[27] Nonetheless, and also in 1969, Blue Movie by Andy Warhol, was the first adult erotic film depicting explicit sex to receive wide theatrical release in the United States.[2][3][4] The film was a seminal film in the Golden Age of Porn and, according to Warhol, a major influence in the making of Last Tango in Paris, an internationally controversial erotic drama film, starring Marlon Brando, and released a few years after Blue Movie was made.[3]

The scholarly study of pornography, notably in cultural studies, is limited, perhaps due to the controversy about the topic in feminism. The first peer-reviewed academic journal about the study of pornography, Porn Studies, was published in 2014.[29]

Classification

Pornography is often distinguished from erotica, which consists of the portrayal of sexuality with high-art aspirations, focusing also on feelings and emotions, while pornography involves the depiction of acts in a sensational manner, with the entire focus on the physical act, so as to arouse quick intense reactions.[30][31][32]

Pornography is generally classified as either softcore or hardcore. A pornographic work is characterized as hardcore if it has any hardcore content, no matter how small. Both forms of pornography generally contain nudity. Softcore pornography generally contains nudity or partial nudity in sexually suggestive situations, but without explicit sexual activity, sexual penetration or "extreme" fetishism,[33] while hardcore pornography may contain graphic sexual activity and visible penetration,[34] including unsimulated sex scenes.

Subgenres

Pornography encompasses a wide variety of genres. Pornography featuring heterosexual acts comprises the bulk of pornography and is "centred and invisible", marking the industry as heteronormative. However, a substantial portion of pornography is not normative, featuring more nonconventional forms of scenarios and sexual activity such as "'fat' porn, amateur porn, disabled porn, porn produced by women, queer porn, BDSM and body modification."[35]

Pornography can be classified according to the physical characteristics of the participants, fetish, sexual orientation, etc., as well as the types of sexual activity featured. Reality and voyeur pornography, animated videos, and legally prohibited acts also influence the classification of pornography. Pornography may fall into more than one genre. The genres of pornography are based on the type of activity featured and the category of participants, for example:

Commercialism

Economics

Main article: Sex industry

Revenues of the adult industry in the United States are difficult to determine. In 1970, a Federal study estimated that the total retail value of hardcore pornography in the United States was no more than $10 million.[36]

In 1998, Forrester Research published a report on the online "adult content" industry estimating $750 million to $1 billion in annual revenue. As an unsourced aside, the Forrester study speculated on an industry-wide aggregate figure of $8–10 billion, which was repeated out of context in many news stories,[37] after being published in Eric Schlosser's book on the American black market.[38] Studies in 2001 put the total (including video, pay-per-view, Internet and magazines) between $2.6 billion and $3.9 billion.[5]

As of 2014, the porn industry was believed to bring in more than $13 billion on a yearly basis in the United States.[39]

CNBC has estimated that pornography was a $13 billion industry in the USA, with $3,075 being spent on porn every second and a new porn video being produced every 39 minutes.[40]

A significant amount of pornographic video is shot in the San Fernando Valley, which has been a pioneering region for producing adult films since the 1970s, and has since become home for various models, actors/actresses, production companies, and other assorted businesses involved in the production and distribution of pornography.

The pornography industry has been considered influential in deciding format wars in media, including being a factor in the VHS vs. Betamax format war (the videotape format war)[41][42] and in the Blu-ray vs. HD DVD format war (the high-def format war).[41][42][43]

Non-commercial pornography

In addition to the porn industry, there is a large amount of non-commercial pornography. This should be distinguished from commercial pornography falsely marketed as featuring "amateurs".

Technology

Advancement

Pornographers have taken advantage of each technological advance in the production and distribution of pornography. They have used lithographs, the printing press, and photography. Pornography is considered a driving force in the development of technologies from the printing press, through photography (still and motion), to satellite TV, other forms of video, and the Internet. With the invention of tiny cameras and wireless equipments voyeur pornography is gaining ground.[44][45] Mobile cameras are used to capture pornographic photos or videos, and forwarded as MMS, a practice known as sexting.

Computer-generated images and manipulations

Digital manipulation requires the use of source photographs, but some pornography is produced without human actors at all. The idea of completely computer-generated pornography was conceived very early as one of the most obvious areas of application for computer graphics and 3D rendering.

Until the late 1990s, digitally manipulated pornography could not be produced cost-effectively. In the early 2000s, it became a growing segment, as the modelling and animation software matured and the rendering capabilities of computers improved. As of 2004, computer-generated pornography depicting situations involving children and sex with fictional characters, such as Lara Croft, is already produced on a limited scale. The October 2004 issue of Playboy featured topless pictures of the title character from the BloodRayne video game.[46]

3D pornography

Due to the popularity of 3D blockbusters in theaters such as Avatar and How to Train Your Dragon, companies are now looking to shoot pornography movies in 3D. The first case of this occurred in Hong Kong, when a group of filmmakers filmed 3D Sex and Zen: Extreme Ecstasy released in April 2011.[47][48]

Production and distribution by region

Main article: Pornography by region

The production and distribution of pornography are economic activities of some importance. The exact size of the economy of pornography and the influence that it has in political circles are matters of controversy.

In the United States, the sex film industry is centered in the San Fernando Valley of Los Angeles. In Europe, Budapest is regarded as the industry center.[49][50][51]

Piracy, the illegal copying and distribution, of adult material is of great concern to the industry,[52] the subject of litigation, and formalized anti-piracy efforts.[53][54]

Study and analysis

Effects

Research concerning the effects of pornography is concerned with multiple outcomes.[55] Such research includes potential influences on rape, domestic violence, sexual dysfunction, difficulties with sexual relationships, and child sexual abuse. Viewers of novel and extreme pornographic images may become tolerant to such images, which may impact sexual response.[55] Currently, there is no evidence that visual images and films are addictive.[56] Several studies conclude the liberalization of porn in society may be associated with decreased rape and sexual violence rates, while others suggest no effect, or are inconclusive.[57][58][59][60][61][62][63]

A 2012 academic study surveyed 308 young adult college women in romantic heterosexual relationships, examining the degree of correlation between their psychological and relational well-being and their partners' use of pornography.[64] A negative correlation was found, which worsened for longer relationships in regard to the women's sexual satisfaction.

A following study examined the ways in which chronic porn use affects antecedents such as gender roles and levels of attachment among straight men in their romantic relationships.[39] The study went on to link this to lower sexual satisfaction as well as a deterioration in the quality of the relationship.[39] The point of pornographic content is to stimulate sexual desire which as a result presents potential problems among couples.[39] By porn affecting one’s gender roles, this enables problems that affect the viewers psychologically, their views of their own sexuality, how others view their sexuality, and can cause self-inflicted or outward violence.[39] An antecedent found to be affected by porn use by men was emotional attachment as well as attachment style in relationships, which can lead to physical and emotional issues among couples.[39] The men in this study tended to avoid intimacy with their partner, which then led to even more porn use.[39] This was also linked to heightened anxiety in the relationship.[39] Men with lower anxiety tend to have a more stable level of attachment, whereas those that are unstable are either overly or not at all attached.[39] Men that display less attachment and more avoidance also showed higher instances of casual sex and more frequent viewings of porn.[39] This also meant that these men tended to avoid romantic or serious relationships and the relationships they did engage in did not last long.[39] The consequences of higher porn use by men in relationships showed a lower quality in their relationships and reduced satisfaction sexually, including displeasure with a partner’s appearance, the act of sex, and intimacy.[39] This then led to emotional feelings of shame and sometimes resentment.[39]

A meta-analysis of 22 studies found that pornography "consumption was associated with sexual aggression in the United States and internationally, among males and females, and in cross-sectional and longitudinal studies. Associations were stronger for verbal than physical sexual aggression, although both were significant. The general pattern of results suggested that violent content may be an exacerbating factor."[65]

Statistics

More than 70% of male internet users from 18 to 34 visit a pornographic site in a typical month.[66] A 2009 study published in the Journal of Economic Perspectives found that Utah was the largest consumer of paid internet pornography per capita in the United States.[67]

Legal status

World map of pornography (18+) laws
  Pornography legal
  Pornography legal, but under some restrictions
  Pornography illegal
  Data unavailable

The legal status of pornography varies widely from country to country. Most countries allow at least some form of pornography. In some countries, softcore pornography is considered tame enough to be sold in general stores or to be shown on TV. Hardcore pornography, on the other hand, is usually regulated. The production and sale, and to a slightly lesser degree the possession, of child pornography is illegal in almost all countries, and some countries have restrictions on pornography depicting violence (see, for example, rape pornography) or animal pornography, or both.

Pornographic entertainment on display in a sex shop window. There is usually a minimum age to go into pornographic stores.

Most countries attempt to restrict minors' access to hardcore materials, limiting availability to sex shops, mail-order, and television channels that parents can restrict, among other means. There is usually an age minimum for entrance to pornographic stores, or the materials are displayed partly covered or not displayed at all. More generally, disseminating pornography to a minor is often illegal. Many of these efforts have been rendered practically irrelevant by widely available Internet pornography. A failed US law would have made these same restrictions apply to the internet.

In the United States, a person receiving unwanted commercial mail he or she deems pornographic (or otherwise offensive) may obtain a Prohibitory Order, either against all mail from a particular sender, or against all sexually explicit mail, by applying to the United States Postal Service. There are recurring urban legends of snuff movies, in which murders are filmed for pornographic purposes. Despite extensive work to ascertain the truth of these rumors, law enforcement officials have been unable to find any such works.

Some people, including pornography producer Larry Flynt and the writer Salman Rushdie,[68] have argued that pornography is vital to freedom and that a free and civilized society should be judged by its willingness to accept pornography.

The UK Government has criminalized possession of what it terms "extreme pornography" following the highly publicized murder of Jane Longhurst.

Child pornography is illegal in most countries, with a person most commonly being a child until the age of 18 (though the age does vary). In those countries, any film or photo with a child subject in a sexual act is considered pornography and illegal.

Pornography can infringe into basic human rights of those involved, especially when consent was not obtained. For example, Revenge Porn is a phenomenon where disgruntled sexual partners release images or video footage of intimate sexual activity, usually on the internet.[69] In many countries there has been a demand to make such activities specifically illegal carrying higher punishments than mere breach of privacy or image rights, or circulation of prurient material.[70][71] As a result, some jurisdictions have enacted specific laws against "revenge porn".[72]

What is not pornography

In the U.S., a July 2014 criminal case decision in Massachusetts (COMMONWEALTH v. John REX.)[73] made a legal determination of what was not to be considered "pornography" and in this particular case "child pornography".[74] It was determined that photographs of naked children that were from sources such as National Geographic magazine, a sociology textbook, and a nudist catalog were not considered pornography in Massachusetts even while in the possession of a convicted and (at the time) incarcerated sex offender.[74]

Copyright status

In the United States, some courts have applied US copyright protection to pornographic materials.[75][76] Although the first US copyright law specifically did not cover obscene materials, the provision was removed subsequently. Most pornographic works are theoretically work for hire meaning pornographic models do not receive statutory royalties for their performances. Of particular difficulty is the changing community attitudes of what is considered obscene, meaning that works could slip into and out of copyright protection based upon the prevailing standards of decency. This was not an issue with the copyright law up until 1972 when copyright protection required registration. When the law was changed to make copyright protection automatic, and for the life of the author.

Some courts have held that copyright protection effectively applies to works, whether they are obscene or not,[77] but not all courts have ruled the same way.[78] The copyright protection rights of pornography in the United States has again been challenged as late as February 2012.[75][79]

Views on pornography

A caricature on "the great epidemic of pornography, 19th-century French illustration."

Views and opinions of pornography come in a variety of forms and from a diversity of demographics and societal groups. Opposition of the subject generally, though not exclusively,[80] comes from three main sources: law, feminism and religion.

Feminist views

Many feminists, including Andrea Dworkin and Catharine MacKinnon, argue that all pornography is demeaning to women or that it contributes to violence against women, both in its production and in its consumption. The production of pornography, they argue, entails the physical, psychological, or economic coercion of the women who perform in it, and where they argue that the abuse and exploitation of women is rampant; in its consumption, they charge that pornography eroticizes the domination, humiliation and coercion of women, and reinforces sexual and cultural attitudes that are complicit in rape and sexual harassment.[81][82][83] They charge that pornography presents a severely distorted image of sexual relations, and reinforces sex myths; that it always shows women as readily available and desiring to engage in sex at any time, with any man, on men's terms, always responding positively to any advances men make.[84] They argue that because pornography often shows women enjoying and desiring to be violently attacked by men, saying "no" when they actually want sex, fighting back but then ending up enjoying the act – this can affect the public understanding of legal issues such as consent to sexual relations.[85]

In contrast to these objections, other feminist scholars argue that the lesbian feminist movement in the 1980s was good for women in the porn industry.[86] As more women entered the developmental side of the industry, this allowed women to gear porn more towards women because they knew what women wanted, both for actresses and the audience.[86] This is believed to be a good thing because for such a long time, the porn industry has been directed by men for men.[86] This also sparked the arrival of making lesbian porn for lesbians instead of men.[86]

Furthermore, many feminists argue that the advent of VCR and consumer video allowed for the possibility of feminist pornography.[87] Consumer video made it possible for the distribution and consumption of video pornography to locate women as legitimate consumers of pornography. Tristan Taormino says that feminist porn is "all about creating a fair working environment and empowering everyone involved."[88] Feminist porn directors are interested in challenging representations of men and women, as well as providing sexually-empowering imagery that features many kinds of bodies.[89]

Religious views

Religious organizations have been important in bringing about political action against pornography.[90] In the United States, religious beliefs affect the formation of political beliefs which concern pornography.[91]

See also

References

  1. ↑ H. Mongomery Hyde (1964) A History of Pornography: 1–26.
  2. 1 2 Canby, Vincent (July 22, 1969). "Movie Review - Blue Movie (1968) Screen: Andy Warhol's 'Blue Movie'". New York Times. Retrieved December 29, 2015.
  3. 1 2 3 Comenas, Gary (2005). "Blue Movie (1968)". WarholStars.org. Retrieved December 29, 2015.
  4. 1 2 Canby, Vincent (August 10, 1969). "Warhol's Red Hot and 'Blue' Movie. D1. Print. (behind paywall)". New York Times. Retrieved December 29, 2015.
  5. 1 2 Ackman, Dan (25 May 2001). "How Big Is Porn?". Forbes.com. Archived from the original on 9 June 2001. Retrieved 8 November 2007. $2.6 billion to $3.9 billion. Sources: Adams Media Research, Forrester Research, Veronis Suhler Communications Industry Report, IVD
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  7. ↑ Rincover, Arnold (1990). "Can Pornography Be Used as Treatment for Voyeurism?". Toronto Star.
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  9. ↑ List of Greek words starting with πορν- (porn-) on Perseus.
  10. ↑ πορνογράφος. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project.
  11. ↑ Athenaeus. "Book 13.567b". The Deipnosophists (in Greek). At the Perseus Project.
  12. ↑ "πορνογραφία". Dictionary of Modern Greek, Institute of Manolis Triantafyllidis, 1998.
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  14. ↑ history of the word pornography | podictionary – for word lovers – dictionary etymology, trivia & history. podictionary (2009-03-13). Retrieved on 2011-04-21. Archived from the original on 2011-05-11.
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  16. ↑ H. Montgomery Hyde A History of Pornography. (1969) London, Heinemann; p. 14.
  17. ↑ Foxon, D. F. Libertine Literature in England, 1660–1745, 1965, p. 45.
  18. ↑ Wagner, "Introduction", in Cleland, Fanny Hill, 1985, p. 7.
  19. ↑ Lane, Obscene Profits: The Entrepreneurs of Pornography in the Cyber Age, 2000, p. 11.
  20. ↑ Browne, The Guide to United States Popular Culture, 2001, p. 273, ISBN 0-87972-821-3; Sutherland, Offensive Literature: Decensorship in Britain, 1960–1982, 1983, p. 32, ISBN 0-389-20354-8.
  21. ↑ The Comstock Act 17 Stat. 598
  22. ↑ Eskridge, William N. (2002). Gaylaw: challenging the apartheid of the closet. Harvard University Press. p. 392.
  23. ↑ From the precedent set by R. v. Curl (1729) following the publication of Venus in the Cloister.
  24. ↑ Beck, Marianna (May 2003). "The Roots of Western Pornography: Victorian Obsessions and Fin-de-Siècle Predilections". Libido, The Journal of Sex and Sensibility. Retrieved 22 August 2006.
  25. ↑ Bottomore, Stephen (1996). "Léar (Albert Kirchner)". Who's Who of Victorian Cinema. British Film Institute. Retrieved 15 October 2006. (Stephen Herbert and Luke McKernan, eds.)
  26. ↑ Bottomore, Stephen (1996). "Eugène Pirou". Who's Who of Victorian Cinema. British Film Institute. Retrieved 15 October 2006. (Stephen Herbert and Luke McKernan, eds.)
  27. 1 2 Chris Rodley, Dev Varma, Kate Williams III (Directors); Marilyn Milgrom, Grant Romer, Rolf Borowczak, Bob Guccione, Dean Kuipers (Cast) (7 March 2006). Pornography: The Secret History of Civilization (DVD). Port Washington, NY: Koch Vision. ISBN 1-4172-2885-7. Retrieved 21 October 2006. Archived August 22, 2010, at the Wayback Machine.
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  32. ↑ What Distinguishes Erotica from Pornography? - Leon F Seltzer, Psychology Today, 6 April 2011
  33. ↑ Martin Amis (17 March 2001). "A rough trade". Guardian.co.uk. Retrieved 29 February 2012.
  34. ↑ "P20th Century Nudes in Art". The Art History Archive. Retrieved 29 February 2012.
  35. ↑ Mulholland, Monique (March 2011). "WHEN PORNO MEETS HETERO". Australian Feminist Studies (Taylor & Francis) 26 (67): 119–135. doi:10.1080/08164649.2011.546332. The pornographic genre is immense, and includes an enormous variety of styles catering to an equally vast range of tastes and fetishes. Certainly, mainstream heteroporn makes up the main bulk of the genre, and is most easily accessible. As stated above, this style of porn includes highly formulaic displays of paired or group sex, enacted by bodies exhibiting a conventional gendered aesthetic, moving through various sexual positions and penetrations. Nonetheless, some forms of porn are more normative than others, and indeed not all forms of heteroporn are normative, such as ‘ rimming ’ , girl on boy strap-on anal sex, and hard-core BDSM. Pornography also includes an endless array of different kinds of fetish, ‘ fat ’ porn, amateur porn, disabled porn, porn produced by women, queer porn, BDSM and body modification. The list of non- mainstream porn is endless and displays bodies, gender scenarios and sexual activity differently to heteronormative formulations of mainstream heteroporn.
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  38. ↑ Schlosser, Eric (8 May 2003). Reefer Madness: Sex, Drugs, and Cheap Labor in the American Black Market. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-618-33466-7. Schlosser's book repeats the $10 billion figure without additional evidence
  39. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Szymanski, Dawn M.; Stewart-Richardson, Destin N. (January 2014). "Psychological, relational, and sexual correlates of pornography use on young adult heterosexual men in romantic relationships". The Journal of Men's Studies (Sage) 22 (1): 64–82.
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  41. 1 2 Mearian, Lucas (2 May 2006). "Porn industry may be decider in Blu-ray, HD-DVD battle". Macworld. Mac Publishing. Archived from the original on 12 July 2006. Retrieved 8 November 2007. Ron Wagner, Director of IT at a California porn studio: "If you look at the VHS vs. Beta standards, you see the much higher-quality standard dying because of [the porn industry's support of VHS] ... The mass volume of tapes in the porn market at the time went out on VHS."
  42. 1 2 Lynch, Martin (17 January 2007). "Blu-ray loves porn after all". The Inquirer. Incisive Media Investments. Archived from the original on 7 November 2007. Retrieved 8 November 2007. By many accounts VHS would not have won its titanic struggle against Sony's Betamax video tape format if it had not been for porn. This might be over-stating its importance but it was an important factor. ... There is no way that Sony can ignore the boost that porn can give the Blu-ray format.
  43. ↑ Gardiner, Bryan (22 January 2007). "Porn Industry May Decide DVD Format War". FOXNews.com – Technology News (Ziff Davis Media). Archived from the original on 10 February 2007. Retrieved 8 November 2007. As was expected, the 2007 Consumer Electronics Show saw even more posturing and politics between the Blu-ray Disc and HD DVD camps, with each side announcing a new set of alliances and predicting that the end of the war was imminent.
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  52. ↑ Hymes, Tom. "Adult Tube Sites Now Spamming Through Google News". AVN.com. Adult Video News. Retrieved 20 August 2014.
  53. ↑ Kernes, Mark. "Nightline Takes a Look at Porn Piracy, and Targets MindGeek". AVN.com. Adult Video News. Retrieved 20 August 2014.
  54. ↑ Staff. "Takedown Piracy Celebrates Fifth Anniversary". AVN.com. Adult Video News. Retrieved 20 August 2014.
  55. 1 2 Segal, David (28 March 2014). "Does porn hurt children?". New York Times. Retrieved 30 March 2014.
  56. ↑ McMahon, Tamsin (January 20, 2014). "Will quitting porn improve your life? A growing ‘NoFap’ movement of young men are saying no to porn and masturbation". Maclean's (Toronto, Canada: Rogers Media). Kruger helped revise the sexual disorders section of the latest edition of the psychiatric bible, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, which doesn’t include sex or porn addiction due to lack of academic evidence that they exist.
  57. ↑ Kutchinsky, Berl (1992), "Pornography, sex crime and public policy", in Gerull, Sally-Anne; Halstead, Boronia, Sex industry and public policy: proceedings of a conference held 6-8 May 1991, Canberra, ACT: Australian Institute of Criminology, pp. 41–55, archived from the original on October 7, 2015 ISBN 9780642182913 Pdf.
  58. ↑ Kutchinsky, Berl (Summer 1973). "The effect of easy availability of pornography on the incidence of sex crimes: the Danish experience". Journal of Social Issues (Wiley for the Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues) 29 (3): 163–181. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.1973.tb00094.x.
  59. ↑ Diamond, Milton (September–October 2009). "Pornography, public acceptance and sex related crime: A review". International Journal of Law and Psychiatry (Elsevier) 32 (5): 304–314. doi:10.1016/j.ijlp.2009.06.004.
  60. ↑ Slade, Joseph (2001). Pornography and sexual representation: a reference guide, volume 3. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press. ISBN 9780313275685.
  61. ↑ Kutchinsky, Berl (1970). Studies on pornography and sex crimes in Denmark. New social science monographs. United States: Nyt fra Samfundsvidenskaberne, eksp. OCLC 155896 Online.
  62. ↑ Kendall, Todd D. (January 19–20, 2007). Pornography, rape, and the internet (doc). Fourth bi-annual Conference on the Economics of the Software and Internet Industries. Toulouse, France. Retrieved 30 March 2014. Pdf.
  63. ↑ D'Amato, Anthony (June 23, 2006). "Porn up, rape down". Northwestern Public Law (Research Paper No. 913013) (Social Science Research Network). doi:10.2139/ssrn.913013. SSRN 913013.
  64. ↑ Stewart, Destin; Szymanski, Dawn (2012). "Young adult women’s reports of their male romantic partner’s pornography use as a correlate of their self-esteem, relationship quality, and sexual satisfaction". Sex Roles 67 (5-6): 257–271. doi:10.1007/s11199-012-0164-0.
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  66. ↑ Statistics on Pornography, Sexual Addiction and Online Perpetrators and their Effects on Children, Pastors and Churches. Safefamilies.org. Retrieved 2011-04-21.
  67. ↑ Edelman, Benjamin. "Red Light States: Who Buys Online Adult Entertainment?" Journal of Economic Perspectives, Volume 23, Number 1 (Winter 2009), pages 209–220.
  68. ↑ Baxter, Sarah; Brooks, Richard (8 August 2004). "Porn is vital to freedom, says Rushdie". Times Online (London: Times Newspapers). Archived from the original on 8 November 2007. Retrieved 8 November 2007. Pornography exists everywhere, of course, but when it comes into societies in which it’s difficult for young men and women to get together and do what young men and women often like doing, it satisfies a more general need.... While doing so, it sometimes becomes a kind of standard-bearer for freedom, even civilisation.
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  70. ↑ Levendowski, Amanda M. (2014). "Using Copyright to Combat Revenge Porn". NYU Journal of Intellectual Property & Entertainment Law (Social Science Research Network) 3. Retrieved 9 January 2016.
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  75. 1 2 Goussé, Caroline (2012-02-16). "No Copyright Protection for Pornography: A Daring Response to File-Sharing Litigation". Intellectual Property Brief. Retrieved 2012-03-01.
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  77. ↑ Mitchell Bros. Film Group v. Cinema Adult Theater, 604 F.2d 852 (5th Cir.1979) and Jartech v. Clancy, 666 F.2d 403 (9th Cir.1982) held that obscenity could not be a defense to copyright claims.
  78. ↑ Devils Films, Inc. v. Nectar Video Under, 29 F.Supp.2d 174, 175 (S.D.N.Y. 1998) refused to follow the Mitchell ruling and relied on the doctrine of “clean hands” to deny copyright protection to works seen as obscene.
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  83. ↑ "A Conversation With Catherine MacKinnon (transcript)". Think Tank. 1995. PBS. Retrieved 1 September 2009.
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  85. ↑ Jeffries, Stuart (12 April 2006). "Are women human? (Interview with Catharine MacKinnon)". The Guardian (London). Catharine MacKinnon argues that: "Pornography affects people's belief in rape myths. So for example if a woman says 'I didn't consent' and people have been viewing pornography, they believe rape myths and believe the woman did consent no matter what she said. That when she said no, she meant yes. When she said she didn't want to, that meant more beer. When she said she would prefer to go home, that means she's a lesbian who needs to be given a good corrective experience. Pornography promotes these rape myths and desensitises people to violence against women so that you need more violence to become sexually aroused if you're a pornography consumer. This is very well documented."
  86. 1 2 3 4 Ziv, Amalia (October 2014). "Girl meets boy: cross-gender queer and the promise of pornography". Sexualities (Sage) 17 (7): 885–905. doi:10.1177/1363460714532937.
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  89. ↑ Erickson, Loree (2013), "Out of line: the sexy femmegimp politics of flaunting it!", in Taormino, Tristan; Parreñas Shimizu, Celine; Penley, Constance; Miller-Young, Mireille, The feminist porn book: the politics of producing pleasure, New York, New York: Feminist Press at the City University of New York, pp. 320–328, ISBN 9781558618190.
  90. ↑ Sherkat, Darren E.; Ellison, Christopher G. (March 1997). "The cognitive structure of a moral crusade: conservative protestantism and opposition to pornography". Social Forces (Oxford Journals) 75 (3): 958. doi:10.1093/sf/75.3.957. JSTOR 2580526.
  91. ↑ Sherkat, Darren E.; Ellison, Christopher G. (August 1999). "Recent developments and current controversies in the sociology of religion". Annual Review of Sociology (Annual Reviews) 25: 370. doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.25.1.363. JSTOR 223509. Pdf.

Further reading

Advocacy

Review of Strossen's book: Blumen, Jonathan (November 1995). "Nadine Strossen: pornography must be tolerated (blog)" 1 (11). 

Opposition

See also: Parent, W. A. (April 1990). "A second look at pornography and the subordination of women". The Journal of Philosophy (Philosophy Documentation Center) 87 (4): 205–211. doi:10.2307/2026681. JSTOR 2026681.  A criticism of Vadas' paper.
Also as: Williams, Linda (1999). Hard core: power, pleasure, and the "frenzy of the visible" (Expanded paperback ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 9780520219434. 
  • Williams, Linda, ed. (2004). Porn studies. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press. ISBN 9780822333128. 

Neutral or mixed

  • Vance, Carole, ed. (1984). Pleasure and danger: exploring female sexuality. Boston: Routledge & K. Paul. ISBN 9780710202482.  Collection of papers from 1982 conference; visible and divisive split between anti-pornography activists and lesbian S&M theorists.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pornography.
Early silent pornographic film from 1925 available at Wikimedia Commons.
Look up pornography in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Pornography

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