Principality of Achaea

Principality of Achaea
Πριγκιπᾶτον Ἀχαΐας
Client state*
← 1205–1432 →
Coat of Arms of Achaea
The Latin Empire with its vassals and the Greek successor states after the partition of the Byzantine Empire, c. 1204. The borders are very uncertain.
Capital		Andravida (1205-1249) Mystras (1249-1261)
Languages		French officially, Greek popularly
Religion		Roman Catholic, Greek Orthodox popularly
Government		Feudal monarchy
Historical era		Middle Ages
•	Fourth Crusade	1204
•	Principality established	1205
•	Battle of Pelagonia	1259
•	Angevin takeover	1278
•	Absorbed in Despotate of the Morea	1432
* The principality was a client state of, in order, the Latin Emperors at Constantinople, the Angevins of the Kingdom of Naples

The Principality of Achaea or of the Morea was one of the three vassal states of the Latin Empire which replaced the Byzantine Empire after the capture of Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade.^[1] It became a vassal of the Kingdom of Thessalonica, along with the Duchy of Athens, until Thessalonica was captured by Theodore, the despot of Epirus, in 1224. After this, Achaea became for a while the dominant power in Greece.

Foundation

Arms of the pretenders family of Savoia-Acaia, a branch of the Savoy family

Achaea was founded in 1205 by William of Champlitte and Geoffrey I of Villehardouin, who undertook to conquer the Peloponnese on behalf of Boniface of Montferrat, King of Thessalonica. With a force of no more than 100 knights and 500 foot soldiers, they took Achaea and Elis, and after defeating the local Greeks in the Battle of the Olive Grove of Koundouros, became masters of the Morea. The victory was decisive, and after the battle all resistance from the locals was limited to a few forts, that continued to hold out. The fort of Araklovon^[2] in Elis, was defended by Doxapatres Boutsaras and withstood the attacks until 1213, when the garrison finally surrendered. The fort of Monemvasia, and the castles of Argos, Nauplia and Corinth under Leo Sgouros held out until his suicide in 1208. By 1212, these too had been conquered, and organized as the lordship of Argos and Nauplia, and only Monemvasia continued to hold out until 1248. William of Champlitte ruled Achaea until he departed for France to assume an inheritance, but died on the way there in 1209. He was succeeded by Geoffrey I of Villehardouin, who ruled until his own death in 1219.

Organization of the Principality

Territorial organization and feudal structure

Map of the Peloponnese with its principal locations during the late Middle Ages

Achaea was rather small, consisting of the Peloponnese peninsula (then known as the Morea), but it was fairly wealthy, exporting wine, raisins, wax, honey, oil and silk. The capital of the principality was originally at Andravida. It was bordered on the north by Epirus and the Duchy of Athens and surrounded by Venetian-held territories in the Aegean Sea, including the forts of Modon and Coron on the Peloponnese.

In 1208/9, after Champlitte's departure, William I created a commission, composed of two Latin bishops, two bannerets and five Greek magnates and chaired by himself, to assess the land and divide it, according to Latin practice, in fiefs. The resulting register was presented at a parliament held at the princely residence at Andravida, and divided the country into twelve baronies, mostly centred around a newly constructed castle—a testament to the fact that the Franks were a military elite amidst a potentially hostile Greek population.^[3][4] The twelve temporal barons were joined by seven ecclesiastic lords, headed by the Latin Archbishop of Patras. Each of the latter was granted a number of estates as knightly fiefs, with the Archbishop receiving eight, the other bishops four each, and likewise four granted to each of the military orders: the Templars, Hospitallers and the Teutonic Knights.^[5] The twelve secular baronies were:^[6][7]

Barony	Fiefs	Territory	First holder
Akova (Mattegrifon)	24	Arcadia	Walter of Rosières
Karytaina (Chabron)	22	Skorta	Renaud of Briel
Patras	24	N. Achaea	William Aleman
Passavant (Passava)	4	Mani Peninsula	John of Nully
Vostitsa	8	E. Achaea	Hugh I of Charpigny
Kalavryta	12	SE. Achaea	Otho of Tournay
Chalandritsa	4 (later 8)	S. Achaea	Audebert of la Trémouille
Veligosti	4	S. Arcadia	Matthew of Mons
Nikli	6	S. Arcadia	William of Morlay
Geraki	6	E. Laconia	Guy of Nivelet
Gritzena	4	SE. Messenia	Luke
Kalamata	-	S. Messenia	William I of Villehardouin

Shortly after 1260, a thirteenth barony, that of Arcadia (modern Kyparissia) was established, which was also a personal fief of the Villehardouins.^[6] Aside from Kalamata (and later Arcadia), which became the Villehardouins' personal fief, the Prince's own domain encompassed the region of Elis, where the capital Andravida, the port of Glarentza (Clarence) and the fortress of Chlemoutsi (Clermont) were situated, Corinthia, with the Acrocorinth as the chief site, as well as most of Messenia and Laconia around the fertile valley of Eurotas. When Tsakonia and the other mountainous regions of the southeast were subdued in the late 1240s, these too came under the Prince's control.^[8]

The twelve barons retained considerable powers and privileges, so that the Prince was not an absolute sovereign but rather a "first among equals" among them. Thus they had the right to construct a castle without the Prince's permission, or to decree capital punishment. Since Salic Law was not adopted in Achaea, women could also inherit the fiefs.^[9] The high secular and ecclesiastic lords formed the High Court (la Haute Court) of the principality, presided over by the Prince, which acted as the Prince's advisory council and judged affairs pertaining to feudal law.^[10][11] In addition, a Lower Court (la Court de la Borgesie) is mentioned, which abjudicated in matters of common law.^[10]

On the other hand, all vassals owed the Prince four months service in the field and four months garrison duty every year, retiring after the age of sixty, but only if a replacement could be provided. This put the principality on constant war footing. Indeed, the knights of Achaea enjoyed a considerable reputation both in the Levant and in Western Europe.^[12][13]

With the Byzantine recovery of the region around Mystras after 1261, however, the rapid extinction of the original families and the expansion of Achaean influence across Frankish Greece, the initial organization of the Principate changed. By the time the principality's laws, the Assizes of Romania, were codified in the 1330s, the peers of the Prince were: the Duke of Athens, the Duke of Naxos, the Triarchs of Negroponte, the Margrave of Bodonitza, the Count palatine of Cephalonia and Zakynthos, the barons of Patras, Matagrifon and Kalavryta, as well as the marshal of the principality.^[6]

Government and administration

Achaean tornese from Glarentza (Clarentia)

The most important secular and ecclesiastical lords participated in the council of the "Grand Court", which was presided over by the Prince. The council had great authority, and its decisions were binding for the Prince. The Principality's higher officials were the chancellor, the Prince's chief minister, the marshal, the constable, the treasurer, the protovestiarius, in charge of the Prince's personal treasury, and the pourveur des chastiaux, who was responsible for the replenishment of the castles.

The Principality also produced a unique set of laws, the "Assizes of Romania", which combined aspects of Byzantine and French law, and became the basis for the laws of the other Crusader states. Several Byzantine titles such as logothetes and protovestarius continued in use, although these titles were adapted to fit the conceptions of Western feudalism. The Byzantine pronoia system was also adapted to fit Western feudalism; peasants (paroikoi) technically owned their land, but military duties and taxes that they had not been subject to under the pronoia system were imposed on them by their new French lords.

The Frankish barons were subjected to heavy military obligations. They had to serve four months each year with the Principality's army and further four months of guard duty on various castles.^[14] They could not leave the Principality, except with the Prince's permission, and even then had to return within two years and two days or have their property confiscated.^[15]

The Principality in the 13th century

Geoffrey I was succeeded by his son Geoffrey II, who ruled until his death in 1245. By confiscating the ecclesiastical taxes, in the years 1221-1223 he built himself a powerful castle at Chlemoutsi, near modern Kyllini, which he used as his main residence. Because of this, he came into conflict with the Catholic Church, and was briefly excommunicated by the Pope. When John III of Nicaea besieged Constantinople in 1236, Geoffrey II came to the aid of the Latin Empire with 100 knights, 800 archers and 6 vessels.

Under his son and successor, Prince William II Villehardouin, the Principality reached its zenith. William was a poet and troubadour, and his court had its own mint at Glarentza, and a flourishing literary culture, using a distinct form of spoken French. In 1249, William II moved the capital of Achaea to the newly built fortress of Mistra, near ancient Sparta. In 1255 he became embroiled in the War of the Euboeote Succession, and in 1259 he allied with Michael II, despot of Epirus, against Michael VIII Palaeologus of Nicaea. However, Michael II then deserted to join the Nicaean side, and William was taken prisoner at the Battle of Pelagonia. After Michael recaptured Constantinople in 1261, William was released in 1262 in return for Mistra and much of Laconia, which became a Byzantine province (the nucleus of the future Despotate of the Morea), as well as an oath of allegiance to the Emperor.

Map of the Greek and Latin states in southern Greece ca. 1278

However, soon after his release, William broke his oath of allegiance, and begun seeking alliances with and help from various Western nations.^[16] Informed by the local Byzantine governor of William's actions, Michael VIII sent an army under the command of his half-brother, Constantine, against William, but the expedition was unsuccessful, the Byzantines first being routed at the Battle of Prinitza in 1263 and then, after Constantine's return to Constantinople, suffering a heavy defeat at the Battle of Makryplagi in 1264.^[17][18]

Despite his successes at Prinitza and Makryplagi, the war with the Byzantines had taken a toll on Achaean resources, and their empire remained a looming threat. A proposal to marry William's elder daughter Isabella to Andronikos, eldest son of Michael VIII, was strongly opposed by the Achaean nobility, who had no desire to come under Byzantine rule. Both William and his overlord Baldwin II, now dispossessed of Constantinople, had hoped for aid from King Manfred of Sicily, who had sent troops to aid William at Pelagonia. But Manfred fell under Papal sanction and was killed in 1266, when Charles of Anjou conquered his kingdom. Charles was now ascendant in Italy, and William and Baldwin came to terms with him in the Treaty of Viterbo (1267). In return for the military aid and funds they so greatly needed, Charles obtained the suzerainty over Achaea from Baldwin, and the Principality itself from William. The latter was to retain the Principality for life, and it was to pass to his daughter, Isabella, who was to marry one of Charles' sons.^[19]

These were hard terms, essentially detaching Achaea from the Latin Empire and making it a dependency of the Kingdom of Sicily. Nonetheless, William fulfilled his obligations, leading an Achaean force to aid Charles against the invasion of Conradin at the Battle of Tagliacozzo (1268), and bringing Isabelle to Italy to marry Charles' son Philip in 1271.^[20] The military support of Charles allowed William to resist the Byzantines, and the last years of his reign were relatively quiet.^[21]

However, after the death of William in 1278, the seeds of a calamitous succession dispute were laid. In the normal course of events, Achaea would have passed to a cadet branch of the House of Anjou. However, his son-in-law Philip had died in 1277 without an heir, and a reversionary clause in the Treaty of Viterbo provided that the Principality would go to Charles of Anjou, rather than Isabelle, should this occur.^[21] Charles duly took possession of the Principality, which he ruled through a series of baillis; he would never personally visit it.^[22]

A renewed commitment by Charles to retake the Latin Empire (Treaty of Orvieto, 1281) was forestalled by the War of the Sicilian Vespers, and this struggle with the Crown of Aragon consumed the remainder of his life. His son Charles II succeeded him in Achaea as well as Sicily (now reduced to the Kingdom of Naples), but was a prisoner in Aragonese hands. In the interim, the rule of Achaea devolved upon a series of baillis chosen from the Morean nobility. Not long after his release and coronation in 1289, he granted the Principality to Isabelle of Villehardouin upon her marriage with Florent of Hainaut, in part to redress the grasping application of the Treaty of Viterbo at William's death. However, he retained feudal overlordship over the Principality, and his grant provided that neither Isabelle nor any daughter who was her heir might marry without his consent.^[23]

The feudal conflict of the Morea (1307–1383)

For this period the principality was under a violent succession dispute, which originated from the dispossessed Latin Emperor Baldwin II's gift of the overlordship of Achaea to Charles I of Sicily in return for support in his attempt to reconquer the throne in Constantinople, an action which ignored the rights of the Villehardouin Princes of Achaea. The Angevin kings of Naples subsequently gave Achaea as their fief to a series of their own relatives and creatures, who fought against Princess Margaret of Villehardouin and her heirs.

Charles II of Naples had at first granted the fiefdom of Morea or Achaea to Princess Isabella of Villehardouin (from the Villehardouin dynasty), but he deposed her in 1307 and granted it to his son Philip I of Taranto, who in 1313 transferred it to Matilda (or Mafalda, or Maud) of Hainaut, heiress of Isabella of Villehardouin, who was married to Louis of Burgundy, titular King of Thessalonica. But Margaret, younger daughter of William II Villehardouin, claimed her rights from 1307. In 1313 she claimed them again without success and then transferred her rights to her daughter Isabelle of Sabran, wife of Ferdinand of Majorca. The son of Ferdinand and Isabelle, known as James the Unfortunate, was proclaimed prince of the Morea in 1315 under the regency of his father, who conquered the principality between 1315 and 1316 but was defeated and executed by Louis of Burgundy and Matilda in 1316. In 1316 Louis of Burgundy died and King Robert of Naples deposed Matilda and gave the principality to his brother John of Durazzo, to whom Matilda was briefly married under duress before being imprisoned.

From 1331 the feudal lords began to recognize the rights of James, and in 1333 the recognition was total. Then John transferred his rights to his sister-in-law, Catherine of Valois, titular Empress of Constantinople, wife of Philip I of Taranto, whose stepson Robert claimed her rights until 1346 when she died. Then the claim was issued by the son of Philip and Catherine, Philip II of Taranto. In 1349 James was succeeded by his son James IV (II of the Morea). In 1364 Robert of Taranto, stepson of Catherine and eldest surviving son of Philip I of Taranto, died. In 1373 Philip II transferred his rights to his cousin, overlord and former sister-in-law Queen Joan I of Naples, whose third husband James IV of Majorca, when he died in 1375, left her his own claim to the principality, at which point she became more or less uncontested Princess of Achaea. However, when Joan was imprisoned in Naples in 1381, another, much younger, James, James of Baux, grandson of Catherine and nephew of Philip II, who in 1374 had become titular Emperor of Constantinople, used the opportunity and seized Achaea. In 1383, Achaea was annexed by Charles III of Naples, successor and murderer of Queen Joan of Naples, who was the grandson of John of Durazzo, and James of Baux was driven away. In 1383 the Vicary government began, lasting until 1396, under the Durazzo kings of Naples.

In 1404, Ladislaus, King of Naples, installed Centurione II Zaccaria, the lord of Arkadia (modern Kyparissia), as prince. Centurione continued to hold the post until 1430, when invasions by the Despots of the Morea, Constantine Palaiologos and Thomas Palaiologos, conquered the heartland of the Principality in Achaea. Centurione married off his daughter and heiress, Catherine, to Thomas, and retreated to his ancestral Messenian castle. On his death in 1432, this too was seized by the Byzantines. In about 1450, his illegitimate son, John Asen, was the focus of rebellions against the despot Constantine Dragases. The Byzantine reconquest proved short-lived, however, as in 1460, the Ottomans conquered the Despotate.

Princes of Achaea

Prince	Other titles	Birth	Marriages	Death
William I 1205-1209 with his nephew Hugh as regent and heir	-	12th century son of Eudes of Champlitte	never married	1209 Apulia, Kingdom of Sicily
Geoffrey I 1209-1228	-	12th century {nephew of Geoffrey of Villehardouin, Marshal of Champagne and of Romania)	??	1228
Geoffrey II 1218-1245	-	1195 son of Geoffrey I of Villehardouin	Agnes of Courtenay 1217 no heirs	1245 aged 50 Andravida, Achaea
William II 1245-1278	nominal Duke of the Archipelago from 1236	after 1195 Kalamata castle son of Geoffrey I of Villehardouin	daughter of Narjot de Toucy 1239 no children Carintana della Carceri before 1255 no children Anna Komnene Doukaina 1259 2 daughters	1 May 1278
Charles I 1278-1285	King of Sicily to 1282 King of Naples King of Albania Count of Provence Count of Anjou	21 March 1226 France son of Louis VIII of France and Blanche of Castile	Beatrice of Provence 31 January 1246 7 children Margaret of Burgundy 1268 no children	7 January 1285 aged 58 Foggia, Apulia, Kingdom of Naples
Charles II 1285-1289	King of Naples King of Albania Count of Anjou	1254 son of King Charles I and Beatrice of Provence	Maria of Hungary 1270 14 children	5 May 1309 aged about 55 Naples, Kingdom of Naples
Isabella 1289-1307 with Florent until 1297 with Philip I from 1301	-	c. 1260 daughter of Prince William II and Anne Komnene Doukaina	Philip of Sicily, titular King of Thessalonica 28 May 1271 no children Florent of Hainaut 16 September 1289 one daughter Philip I of Piedmont 12 February 1301 no children	23 January 1312 Hainaut
Florent 1289-1297 with Isabella	Stadholder of Zeeland Constable of the Kingdom of Naples	c. 1255 son of John I of Avesnes and Adelaide of Holland	Isabella of Villehardouin 16 September 1289 one daughter	23 January 1297 aged about 41 Castle of Saint George, Arcadia
Philip I 1301-1307 with Isabella	Lord of Piedmont	1278 son of Thomas III of Piedmont and Guia of Burgundy	Isabella of Villehardouin 12 February 1301 no children Catherine de la Tour du Pin 1312 5 children
Philip II 1307-1313	Prince of Taranto Lord of the Kingdom of Albania titular Latin Emperor jure uxoris from 1313	10 November 1278 Naples, Kingdom of Naples son of King Charles II and Maria of Hungary	Thamar Angelina Komnene 12 July 1294 5 children Catherine of Valois 29 July 1313 5 children	26 December 1331 aged 53
Matilda 1313-1318 with Louis until 1316 in opposition to Odo from 1316	Duchess of Athens 1289-1308 Duchess of Durazzo 1318-1321	29 November 1293 daughter of Florent of Hainaut and Isabella of Villehardouin, Princess of Achaea	Guy II de la Roche, Duke of Athens 1299 no children Louis of Burgundy 31 July 1313 no children John, Duke of Durazzo March 1318 no children Hugh de La Palice c. 1321 no children	1331 aged about 38 Aversa, Kingdom of Naples
Louis 1313-1316 with Matilda	titular King of Thessalonica	1297 son of Robert II, Duke of Burgundy and Agnes of France	Matilda of Hainaut, Princess of Achaea 31 July 1313 no children	2 August 1316 aged about 19 Elis
Odo 1316-1320 in opposition to Matilda until 1318	Duke of Burgundy	1295 son of Robert II, Duke of Burgundy and Agnes of France	Joan III, Countess of Burgundy 1318 6 children	3 April 1350 aged about 55
Louis 1320-1321	Count of Clermont-en-Beauvaisis	1279 son of Robert, Count of Clermont and Beatrix of Burgundy	Mary of Avesnes 1310 8 children	29 January 1342 aged about 62
John 1322-1332	Count of Gravina	1294 son of King Charles II and Maria of Hungary	Matilda of Hainaut, Princess of Achaea March 1318 no children Agnes de Périgord 14 November 1321 4 sons	5 August 1336 aged 42
Robert 1332-1364	Prince of Taranto until 1346 titular Latin Emperor from 1346	1319 son of Prince Philip II and Catherine of Valois	Marie of Bourbon 9 September 1347 no children	10 September 1364 aged about 45 Naples, Kingdom of Naples
Philip III 1364-1373	Prince of Taranto titular Latin Emperor	1329 son of Prince Philip II and Catherine of Valois	Maria of Calabria April 1355 5 children Elizabeth of Slavonia 20 October 1370 one son	25 November 1374 aged about 45 Taranto, Kingdom of Naples
Joan 1373-1381	Queen of Naples Countess of Provence titular Queen consort of Majorca	1328 Naples, Kingdom of Naples daughter of Charles, Duke of Calabria and Marie of Valois	Andrew, Duke of Calabria 1334 one son Louis, Prince of Taranto 20 August 1346 2 daughters James IV of Majorca 26 September 1363 no children Otto, Duke of Brunswick-Grubenhagen 25 September 1376 no children	12 May 1382 aged about 54 San Fele, Kingdom of Naples
James 1381-1383	Duke of Andria Prince of Taranto titular Latin Emperor	?? son of Francis of Baux, Duke of Andria and Marguerite of Taranto	Agnes of Durazzo 16 September 1382 no children	7 July 1383
Charles III 1383-1386	King of Naples King of Hungary from 1385	1345 Naples, Kingdom of Naples son of Louis of Durazzo and Margaret of Sanseverino	Margaret of Durazzo February 1369 3 children	7 February 1386 aged about 40 Visegrád, Kingdom of Hungary
Interregnum: At Charles III's death in 1386 the principality entered an interregnum where five pretenders claimed its throne, none having a strong enough claim to be considered a ruler until Peter of Saint Superan, leader of the Navarrese Company, declared himself Prince in 1396 with the blessing of Pope Urban VI, who claimed ownership of the principality since James of Baux's heirs had forfeited their rights to the Holy See.
Pedro de San Superano 1396-1402	-	??	Maria II Zaccaria one son	1402 Modon or Coron, Byzantine Empire
Maria II Zaccaria 1402-1404	-	??	Pedro de San Superano one son	after 1404
Centurione II Zaccaria 1404-1430	Baron of Arcadia	?? son of Andronikos Asen Zaccaria	Creusa Tocco c. 1404 one daughter	1432 Arcadia

Claimants to the Principality

Ferdinand of Majorca began to claim the Principality from 1313 on behalf of his wife Isabelle of Sabran, daughter of Marguerite of Villehardouin, younger daughter of William II and sister to Isabella of Villehardouin. The claim passed to Ferdinand and Isabelle's son James III and thereafter to his son James IV. He willed his claim to his wife Joan I of Naples, and after his death she held the title relatively without contest.

Although Philip I of Piedmont only held power in Achaea through his first wife, the title Prince of Achaea was claimed by his son by his second wife, James of Piedmont, and subsequently his sons Philip II, Amadeo and Louis. None of these three had sons and their claim died with Louis.

Centurione II willed his lands to Thomas Palaiologos, Despot of the Morea and eventual titular Byzantine Emperor, husband of his daughter Catherine Zaccaria. Thomas's son Andreas later willed all of his titles to Ferdinand II of Aragon. Centurione II's bastard son John Asen Zaccaria claimed his father's title during the Morea revolt of 1453–54.

See also

• Roman and Byzantine Greece

Footnotes

1. Lock, Peter (2006). "Achaia". In Alan V. Murray. The Crusades: An Encyclopedia 1. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. pp. 5–8. OCLC 70122512.
2. Miller William (1908)The Latins in the Levant : a history of Frankish Greece, 1204-1566 E.P. Dutton and Company, New York. p38
3. Setton (1976), p. 30
4. Miller (1921), p. 71
5. Miller (1921), pp. 72–73
6. Setton (1976), p. 31
7. Miller (1921), pp. 71–72
8. Bon (1969), p. 104
9. Miller (1921), p. 74
10. Setton (1976), p. 32
11. Miller (1921), pp. 71, 72
12. Miller (1921), p. 72
13. Setton (1976), pp. 31–32
14. Chronicle of the Morea, verses 1995-2004
15. Assizes Articles 111 & 120
16. Bartusis, M.C., The Late Byzantine Army (1997), p. 49
17. Bartusis, M.C., The Late Byzantine Army (1997), pp. 49-50
18. Hooper, N. & Bennett, M., The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare (1996), p. 104
19. Setton, Wolff & Hazard 1969, pp. 254–255.
20. Setton, Wolff & Hazard 1969, p. 256.
21. Setton, Wolff & Hazard 1969, p. 258.
22. Setton, Wolff & Hazard 1969, p. 259.
23. Setton, Wolff & Hazard 1969, p. 260–261.

References

• Bon, Antoine (1969). La Morée franque. Recherches historiques, topographiques et archéologiques sur la principauté d’Achaïe (in French). Paris: De Boccard.
• Dourou-Iliopoulou, Maria (2005). Το Φραγκικό Πριγκιπάτο της Αχαΐας (1204-1432). Ιστορία. Οργάνωση. Κοινωνία. [The Frankish Principality of Achaea (1204-1432). History. Organization. Society.] (in Greek). Thessaloniki: Vanias Publications. ISBN 960-288-153-4.
• Fine, John Van Antwerp (1994). The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-08260-5.
• Finley Jr, John H. "Corinth in the Middle Ages." Speculum, Vol. 7, No. 4. (Oct., 1932), pp. 477–499.
• Longnon, Jean (1969). "The Frankish States in Greece, 1204–1311". In Wolff, Robert Lee; Hazard, Harry W. A History of the Crusades, Volume II: The Later Crusades, 1189–1311. University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 234–275. ISBN 0-299-06670-3.
• Miller, William (1908). The Latins in the Levant, a History of Frankish Greece (1204–1566). New York: E.P. Dutton and Company.
• Miller, William (1921). Essays on the Latin Orient. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Tozer, H. F. "The Franks in the Peloponnese." The Journal of Hellenic Studies, Vol. 4. (1883), pp. 165–236.
• Bartusis, M.C., The Late Byzantine Army (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1997) ISBN 0-8122-1620-2, ISBN 978-0-8122-1620-2
• Hooper, N. & Bennett, M., The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare (Cambridge University Press, 1996) ISBN 0-521-44049-1, ISBN 978-0-521-44049-3
• Topping, Peter (1975). "The Morea, 1311–1364". In Hazard, Harry W. A History of the Crusades, Volume III: The fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 104–140.
• Topping, Peter (1975). "The Morea, 1364–1460". In Hazard, Harry W. A History of the Crusades, Volume III: The fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 141–166. ISBN 0-299-06670-3.
• Setton, Kenneth M. (1976). The Papacy and the Levant (1204–1571), Volume I: The Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: The American Philosophical Society. ISBN 0-87169-114-0.

External links

• Latin Occupation in the Greek Lands