Red Summer (1919)

Red Summer

A white gang hunting African Americans during the Chicago Race Riot of 1919.
Date 1919
Location United States
Outcome Riots between white and black Americans across the United States.

The Red Summer refers to the summer and early autumn of 1919, which was marked by hundreds of deaths and higher casualties across the United States, as a result of race riots that occurred in more than three dozen cities and one rural county. In most instances, whites attacked African Americans. In some cases many blacks fought back, notably in Chicago. The highest number of fatalities occurred in the rural area around Elaine, Arkansas, where five whites and an estimated 100-240 blacks were killed; Chicago and Washington, D.C. had 38 and 15 deaths, respectively, and many more injured, with extensive property damage in Chicago.[1]

The riots resulted from a variety of postwar social tensions related to the demobilization of veterans of World War I, both black and white, and competition for jobs and housing among ethnic whites and blacks. In addition, it was a time of labor unrest in which some industrialists used blacks as strikebreakers, increasing resentment. The riots were extensively documented in the press, which along with the federal government feared Socialist and communist influence on the black civil rights movement following the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia. They also feared foreign anarchists, who had bombed homes and businesses of prominent business and government leaders.

Civil rights activist and author James Weldon Johnson coined the term "Red Summer;" he had been employed as a field secretary since 1916 by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). In 1919, he organized peaceful protests against the racial violence of that summer.[2][3]

Context

With the manpower mobilization of World War I and immigration from Europe cut off, the industrial cities of the North and Midwest experienced severe labor shortages. Northern manufacturers recruited throughout the South and an exodus of workers ensued.[4] By 1919, an estimated 500,000 African Americans had emigrated from the Southern United States to the industrial cities of the North and Midwest in the first wave of the Great Migration, which continued until 1940.[1] African-American workers filled new positions in expanding industries, such as the railroads, as well as many jobs formerly held by whites. In some cities, they were hired as strikebreakers, especially during the strikes of 1917.[4] This increased resentment against them among many working-class whites, immigrants or first-generation Americans. Following the war, rapid demobilization of the military without a plan for absorbing veterans into the job market, and the removal of price controls, led to unemployment and inflation that increased competition for jobs.

During the First Red Scare of 1919-20, following the Russian Revolution, anti-Bolshevik sentiment in the United States quickly replaced the anti-German sentiment of the war years. Many politicians and government officials, together with much of the press and the public, feared an imminent attempt to overthrow the US government to create a new regime modeled on that of the Soviets. Authorities viewed with alarm African Americans' advocacy of racial equality, labor rights, or the rights of victims of mobs to defend themselves. In a private conversation in March 1919, President Woodrow Wilson said that "the American Negro returning from abroad would be our greatest medium in conveying bolshevism to America."[5] Other whites expressed a wide range of opinions, some anticipating unsettled times and others seeing no signs of tension.[6]

Early in 1919, Dr. George E. Haynes, an educator employed as director of Negro Economics for the U.S. Department of Labor, wrote: "The return of the Negro soldier to civil life is one of the most delicate and difficult questions confronting the Nation, north and south."[7] One black veteran wrote a letter to the editor of the Chicago Daily News saying the returning black veterans "are now new men and world men, if you please; and their possibilities for direction, guidance, honest use, and power are limitless, only they must be instructed and led. They have awakened, but they have not yet the complete conception of what they have awakened to."[8] W. E. B. Du Bois, an official of the NAACP and editor of its monthly magazine, saw an opportunity: "By the God of Heaven, we are cowards and jackasses if now that the war is over, we do not marshal every ounce of our brain and brawn to fight a sterner, longer, more unbending battle against the forces of hell in our own land."[9] In May 1919, following the first serious racial incidents, he published his essay "Returning Soldiers":[10]

"We return from the slavery of uniform which the world's madness demanded us to don to the freedom of civil garb. We stand again to look America squarely in the face and call a spade a spade. We sing: This country of ours, despite all its better souls have done and dreamed, is yet a shameful land....

We return.

We return from fighting.

We return fighting."

Events

Following the violence-filled summer, in the autumn of 1919, Haynes reported on the events as a prelude to an investigation by the United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary. He identified 38 separate riots in widely scattered cities, in which whites attacked blacks.[1] Unlike earlier race riots in U.S. history, the 1919 events were among the first in which blacks in number resisted white attacks and fought back. A. Philip Randolph, a civil rights activist and leader of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, publicly defended the right of blacks to self-defense.[2]

In addition, Haynes reported that between January 1 and September 14, 1919, white mobs lynched at least forty-three African Americans, with sixteen hanged and others shot; while another eight men were burned at the stake. The states appeared powerless or unwilling to interfere or prosecute such mob murders.[1]

Riots

"The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People respectfully enquires how long the Federal Government under your administration intends to tolerate anarchy in the United States?"

-NAACP telegram to President Woodrow Wilson
August 29, 1919

...the shame put upon the country by the mobs, including United States soldiers, sailors, and marines, which have assaulted innocent and unoffending negroes in the national capital. Men in uniform have attacked negroes on the streets and pulled them from streetcars to beat them. Crowds are reported ...to have directed attacks against any passing negro....The effect of such riots in the national capital upon race antagonism will be to increase bitterness and danger of outbreaks elsewhere. National Association for the Advancement of Colored People calls upon you as President and Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces of the nation to make statement condemning mob violence and to enforce such military law as situation demands.>
Will Brown, Victim of Omaha, Nebraska violence[21]

Chronology

Based on Haynes' report as summarized in the New York Times, except as noted.[1]

Date Place
May 10 Charleston, South Carolina
May 10 Sylvester, Georgia
May 29 Putnam County, Georgia
May 31 Monticello, Mississippi
June 13 New London, Connecticut
June 13 Memphis, Tennessee
June 27 Annapolis, Maryland
June 27 Macon, Mississippi
July 3 Bisbee, Arizona
July 5 Scranton, Pennsylvania
July 6 Dublin, Georgia
July 7 Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
July 8 Coatesville, Pennsylvania
July 9 Tuscaloosa, Alabama
July 10[25] Longview, Texas
July 11 Baltimore, Maryland
July 15 Port Arthur, Texas
Date Place
July 19 Washington, D.C.
July 21 Norfolk, Virginia
July 23 New Orleans, Louisiana
July 23 Darby, Pennsylvania
July 26 Hobson City, Alabama
July 27 Chicago, Illinois
July 28 Newberry, South Carolina
July 31 Bloomington, Illinois
July 31 Syracuse, New York
July 31 Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
August 4 Hattiesburg, Mississippi
August 6 Texarkana, Texas
August 21 New York City, New York
August 30 Knoxville, Tennessee
September 28 Omaha, Nebraska
October 1 Elaine, Arkansas

Responses

"We appeal to you to have your country undertake for its racial minority that which you forced Poland and Austria to undertake for their racial minorities."

-National Equal Rights League to President Woodrow Wilson
November 25, 1919

In September 1919, in response to the Red Summer, the African Blood Brotherhood formed in northern cities to serve as an "armed resistance" movement.

Protests and appeals to the federal government continued for weeks. A letter in late November from the National Equal Rights League appealed to Wilson's international advocacy for human rights: "We appeal to you to have your country undertake for its racial minority that which you forced Poland and Austria to undertake for their racial minorities."[26]

Haynes report

The report by Dr. George Edmund Haynes of October 1919[1] was a call for national action; it was published in the New York Times and other major newspapers. He noted that lynchings were a national problem. As President Wilson had noted in a 1918 speech: from 1889–1918, more than 3,000 people had been lynched; 2,472 were black men, and 50 were black women. Haynes said that states had shown themselves "unable or unwilling" to put a stop to lynchings, and seldom prosecuted the murderers. The fact that white men had been lynched in the North as well, he argued, demonstrated the national nature of the overall problem: "It is idle to suppose that murder can be confined to one section of the country or to one race."[1] He connected the lynchings to the widespread riots in 1919:

"Persistence of unpunished lynchings of negroes fosters lawlessness among white men imbued with the mob spirit, and creates a spirit of bitterness among negroes. In such a state of public mind a trivial incident can precipitate a riot.
"Disregard of law and legal process will inevitably lead to more and more frequent clashes and bloody encounters between white men and negroes and a condition of potential race war in many cities of the United States.
"Unchecked mob violence creates hatred and intolerance, making impossible free and dispassionate discussion not only of race problems, but questions on which races and sections differ."[1]

Press coverage

Headline of The Gazette, Elaine, Arkansas, October 3, 1919

In mid-summer, in the middle of the Chicago riots, a federal official told the New York Times that the violence resulted from "an agitation, which involves the I.W.W., Bolshevism and the worst features of other extreme radical movements."[27] He supported that claim with copies of negro publications that called for alliances with leftist groups, praised the Soviet regime, and contrasted the courage of jailed Socialist Eugene V. Debs with the "school boy rhetoric" of traditional black leaders. The Times characterized the publications as "vicious and apparently well financed," mentioned "certain factions of the radical Socialist elements," and reported it all under the headline: "Reds Try to Stir Negroes to Revolt."[27]

In response, some black leaders such as Bishop Charles Henry Phillips of the Colored Methodist Episcopal Church asked blacks to shun violence in favor of "patience" and "moral suasion." Phillips opposed propaganda favoring violence, and he noted the grounds of injustice to the blacks:[28]

I cannot believe that the negro was influenced by Bolshevist agents in the part he took in the rioting. It is not like him to be a traitor or a revolutionist who would destroy the Government. But then the reign of mob law to which he has so long lived in terror and the injustices to which he has had to submit have made him sensitive and impatient.

The connection between blacks and bolshevism was widely repeated. In August 1919, the Wall Street Journal wrote: "Race riots seem to have for their genesis a Bolshevist, a Negro, and a gun." The National Security League repeated that reading of events.[29] In presenting the Haynes report in early October, The New York Times provided a context which his report did not mention. Haynes documented violence and inaction on the state level.

The Times saw "bloodshed on a scale amounting to local insurrection" as evidence of "a new negro problem" because of "influences that are now working to drive a wedge of bitterness and hatred between the two races."[1] Until recently, the Times said, black leaders showed "a sense of appreciation" for what whites had suffered on their behalf in fighting a civil war that "bestowed on the black man opportunities far in advance of those he had in any other part of the white man's world."[1] Now militants were supplanting Booker T. Washington, who had "steadily argued conciliatory methods." The Times continued:[1]

Every week the militant leaders gain more headway. They may be divided into general classes. One consists of radicals and revolutionaries. They are spreading Bolshevist propaganda. It is reported that they are winning many recruits among the colored race. When the ignorance that exists among negroes in many sections of the country is taken into consideration the danger of inflaming them by revolutionary doctrine may [be] apprehended.... The other class of militant leaders confine their agitation to a fight against all forms of color discrimination. They are for a program on uncompromising protest, "to fight and continue to fight for citizenship rights and full democratic privileges.

As evidence of militancy and Bolshevism, the Times named W.E.B. Du Bois and quoted his editorial in The Crisis, which he edited: "Today we raise the terrible weapon of self-defense....When the armed lynchers gather, we too must gather armed." When the Times endorsed Haynes' call for a bi-racial conference to establish "some plan to guarantee greater protection, justice, and opportunity to negroes that will gain the support of law-abiding citizens of both races," it endorsed discussion with "those negro leaders who are opposed to militant methods."[1]

In mid-October government sources provided the Times with evidence of Bolshevist propaganda appealing to America's black communities. This account set Red propaganda in the black community into a broader context, since it was "paralleling the agitation that is being carried on in industrial centres of the North and West, where there are many alien laborers."[30] The Times described newspapers, magazines, and "so-called 'negro betterment' organizations" as the way propaganda about the "doctrines of Lenin and Trotzky" was distributed to blacks.[30] It cited quotes from such publications, which contrasted the recent violence in Chicago and Washington, D.C. with:"[30]

...Soviet Russia, a country in which dozens of racial and lingual types have settled their many differences and found a common meeting ground, a country which no longer oppresses colonies, a country from which the lynch rope is banished and in which racial tolerance and peace now exist.

The Times noted a call for unionization: "Negroes must form cotton workers' unions. Southern white capitalists know that the negroes can bring the white bourbon South to its knees. So go to it."[30]

Coverage of the root causes of the riot in Elaine, Arkansas evolved as the violence stretched over several days. A dispatch from Helena, Arkansas to the New York Times datelined October 1 said: "Returning members of the [white] posse brought numerous stories and rumors, through all of which ran the belief that the rioting was due to propaganda distributed among the negroes by white men."[31] The next day's report added detail: "Additional evidence has been obtained of the activities of propagandists among the negroes, and it is thought that a plot existed for a general uprising against the whites." A white man had been arrested and was "alleged to have been preaching social equality among the negroes." Part of the headline was: "Trouble Traced to Socialist Agitators."[32] A few days later a Western Newspaper Union dispatch captioned a photo using the words "Captive Negro Insurrectionists."[33]

Government activity

During the Chicago riot, the press learned from Department of Justice officials that the IWW and Bolsheviks were "spreading propaganda to breed race hated."[34] FBI agents filed reports that leftist views were winning converts in the black community. One cited the work of the NAACP "urging the colored people to insist upon equality with white people and to resort to force, if necessary.[29] J. Edgar Hoover, at the start of his career in government, analyzed the riots for the Attorney General. He blamed the July Washington, D.C., riots on "numerous assaults committed by Negroes upon white women."[13] For the October events in Arkansas, he blamed "certain local agitation in a Negro lodge."[13] A more general cause he cited was "propaganda of a radical nature."[13] He charged that socialists were feeding propaganda to black-owned magazines such as The Messenger, which in turn aroused their black readers. He did not note the white perpetrators of violence, whose activities local authorities documented. As chief of the Radical Division within the U.S. Department of Justice, Hoover began an investigation of "negro activities" and targeted Marcus Garvey because he thought his newspaper Negro World preached Bolshevism.[13] He authorized the hiring of black undercover agents to spy on black organizations and publications in Harlem.[34]

On November 17, Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer reported to Congress on the threat that anarchists and Bolsheviks posed to the government. More than half the report documented radicalism in the black community and the "open defiance" black leaders advocated in response to racial violence and the summer's rioting. It faulted the leadership of the black community for an "ill-governed reaction toward race rioting...In all discussions of the recent race riots there is reflected the note of pride that the Negro has found himself. that he has 'fought back,' that never again will he tamely submit to violence and intimidation."[35] It described "the dangerous spirit of defiance and vengeance at work among the Negro leaders."[35]

Arts

Claude McKay's sonnet, "If We Must Die",[36] was prompted by the events of Red Summer.[37]

See also

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 New York Times: "For Action on Race Riot Peril," October 5, 1919, accessed January 20, 2010. This newspaper article includes several paragraphs of editorial analysis followed by Dr. George E. Haynes' report, "summarized at several points."
  2. 1 2 Alana J. Erickson, "Red Summer," in Encyclopedia of African-American Culture and History (NY: Macmillan, 1960), 2293-4
  3. ↑ George P. Cunningham, "James Weldon Johnson," in Encyclopedia of African-American Culture and History (NY: Macmillan, 1960), 1459-61
  4. 1 2 David M. Kennedy, Over Here: The First World War and American Society (NY: Oxford University Press, 2004), 279, 281-2
  5. ↑ McWhirter, 56
  6. ↑ McWhirter 19, 22-4
  7. ↑ McWhirter, 13
  8. ↑ McWhirter, 15
  9. ↑ McWhirter, 14
  10. ↑ McWhirter, 31-2, emphasis in original
  11. ↑ Walter C. Rucker, James N. Upton. Encyclopedia of American Race Riots. Volume 1. 2007, page 92-3
  12. ↑ Rucker, Walter C. and Upton, James N. Encyclopedia of American Race Riots (2007), 554
  13. 1 2 3 4 5 Kenneth D. Ackerman, Young J. Edgar: Hoover, the Red Scare, and the Assault on Civil Liberties (NY: Carroll & Graf, 2007), 60-2
  14. ↑ New York Times: "Protest Sent to Wilson," July 22, 1919. Retrieved January 21, 2010.
  15. ↑ Encyclopædia Britannica: "Chicago Race Riot of 1919". Retrieved January 24, 2010.
  16. ↑ New York Times: "Negroes Appeal to Wilson,"" August 1, 1919. Retrieved January 21, 2010.
  17. ↑ New York Times: Negro Protest to Wilson," August 30, 1919. Retrieved January 21, 2010.
  18. ↑ Bruce Wheeler, "Knoxville Riot of 1919," Tennessee Encyclopedia of History and Culture. Retrieved January 25, 2010.
  19. ↑ Robert Whitaker, On the Laps of Gods: The Red Summer of 1919 and the Struggle for Justice that Remade a Nation (NY: Random House, 2008), 53
  20. ↑ Matthew Lakin, "'A Dark Night': The Knoxville Race Riot of 1919," Journal of East Tennessee History, 72 (2000), pp. 1-29.
  21. ↑ Lewis, David Levering, W. E. B. Du Bois: A Biography, 2009, p 383
  22. ↑ David, Pietrusza, 1920: The Year of Six Presidents (NY: Carroll & Graf, 2007), 167-72
  23. ↑ Eric M. Freedman, Habeas Corpus: Rethinking the Great Writ of Liberty (New York University Press, 2001), 68
  24. ↑ Robert Whitaker, On the Laps of Gods: The Red Summer of 1919 and the Struggle for Justice that Remade a Nation (NY: Random House, 2008), 131-42. Whittaker's work is a detailed account of the Arkansas events, not a general study of Red Summer.
  25. ↑ Robert Whitaker, On the Laps of Gods: The Red Summer of 1919 and the Struggle for Justice that Remade a Nation (New York: Random House, 2008), 51
  26. ↑ New York Times: "Ask Wilson to Aid Negroes," November 26, 1919. Retrieved January 21, 2010.
  27. 1 2 New York Times: "Reds Try to Stir Negroes to Revolt," July 28, 1919. Retrieved January 28, 2010.
  28. ↑ "Denies Negroes are 'Reds'" New York Times August 3, 1919, accessed January 28, 2010. Phillips was based in Nashville, Tennessee.
  29. 1 2 McWhirter, 160
  30. 1 2 3 4 New York Times: "Reds are Working among Negroes," October 19, 1919. Retrieved January 28, 2010.
  31. ↑ New York Times: "None Killed in Fight with Arkansas Posse," October 2, 1919. Retrieved January 27, 2010.
  32. ↑ New York Times: "Six More are Killed in Arkansas Riots," October 3, 1919. Retrieved January 27, 2010.
  33. ↑ New York Times: "[untitled]" October 12, 1919. Retrieved January 27, 2010.
  34. 1 2 McWhirter, 159
  35. 1 2 McWhirter, 239-41
  36. ↑ "If We Must Die" poetryfoundation.org, accessed May 5, 2015
  37. ↑ McKay, Claude. "McKay on 'If We Must Die'". Modern American Poetry.

Further reading

  • Dray, Philip, At the Hands of Persons Unknown: The Lynching of Black America (NY: Random House, 2002)
  • McWhirter, Cameron, Red Summer: The Summer of 1919 and the Awakening of Black America (NY: Henry Holt, 2011)
  • Krist, Gary. City of Scoundrels: The Twelve Days of Disaster That Gave Birth to Modern Chicago. New York, NY: Crown Publisher, 2012. ISBN 978-0-307-45429-4.
  • Tuttle, William M., Jr., Race Riot: Chicago in the Red Summer of 1919 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1996), originally published 1970
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