Sri Ksetra Kingdom

Kingdom of Sri Ksetra
သရေခေတ္တရာ
c. 5th to 7th century CE–c. 1050s →
Capital Sri Ksetra
Languages Pyu
Religion Buddhism, animism, Vaishnavism
Government Monarchy
Historical era Classical Antiquity
 •  Founding of Kingdom c. 5th to 7th century CE
 • Launch of Burmese calendar 21 March 640
 • Duttabaung ascends to throne 25 March 739
 •  Fall of Kingdom c. 1050s
Bawbawgyi, located outside the city walls at Sri Ksetra.

Sri Ksetra (သရေခေတ္တရာ ပြည်, IPA: [θəjè kʰɪʔtəjà pjì]; lit. "Field of Fortune"[1] or "Field of Glory"[2]), located along the Irrawaddy River at present-day Hmawza, was once a prominent Pyu settlement. The Pyu occupied several sites across Upper Myanmar, with Sri Ksetra recorded as the largest, the city wall enclosing an area of 1,477 hectares.[3] Issues surrounding the dating of this site has meant the majority of material is dated between the seventh and ninth centuries AD, however recent scholarship suggests Pyu culture at Sri Ksetra was active centuries before this.

Sri Ksetra is the site for much of the Pyu artistic legacy. The arrival of Buddhism into the Pyu cities saw the increased artistic production, with very little surviving from the earlier period of occupation. The vast arraying of surviving material indicates a rich visual culture that was endorsed by the Pyu at Sri Ksetra.

The Pyu at Sri Ksetra declined in prominence around the ninth century AD. The final mention of the Pyu is found at Pagan, with a twelfth century stone featuring inscriptions in Pyu, Mon, Burmese and Pali.[4]

History

See also: Pyu city-states

Burmese legends greatly differ from the reconstruction of Pyu history by scholars. A widely held belief, based on the interpretation of the extensive interdisciplinary evidence suggests that Sri Ksetra was founded between the fifth and seventh centuries by the Pyu people.[5] This interpretation has been challenge by scholars who have argued that it was occupied earlier then these dates.[6] Radiocarbon dating tested on charcoal found at Sri Ksetra produce dates to between 50 – 200 AD, a timeframe that is significantly earlier then previously considered.[7] This early date in the first centuries of the first millennium AD would place the Pyu as one of the earliest urbanised people in Southeast Asia.

Sri Ksetra is the largest Pyu site discovered thus far (Beikthano and Sri Ksetra are the only Pyu sites that have been extensively excavated. Other important Pyu cities as Maingmaw and Binnaka could yield more artefacts with more extensive excavations). It occupied an area larger than that of the eleventh century Pagan or nineteenth century Mandalay.[8] The city walls at Sri Ksetra are the largest of any Pyu settlements.[9] Numerous ruined stupas and temples have been discovered both inside and outside the city walls at Sri Ksetra.[10] The three principal stupas that are a feature of the Pyu landscape at Hmawza, Bawbaw gyi, Payama and Paya gyi, are also located outside the walls.

In conjunction to archaeological evidence, there are a number of written records that mention the Pyu, largely found in Chinese historical accounts. The earliest mention is the fourth century AD account by Ch'ang Ch'u, with later accounts by Chinese pilgrims Xuanzang and Yijing in the seventh century AD .[11] In the eighth century AD Tang histories mentioned the arrival at the court of an embassy from the Pyu capital in 801.[12] While these written records assist with the dating of Sri Ksetra and demonstrate cross-cultural interactions, they are fragmented and cannot all be backed by other evidence.

Sri Ksetra was an important entrepôt between China and India. It was located on the Irrawaddy, close to the sea, before the Irrawaddy delta had been formed. Ships from the Indian Ocean travelled to Prome to trade with the Pyu and Chinese.[13] Trade with India brought important cultural influences to Sri Ksetra, including the arrival of Buddhism, which was imposed on existing belief systems. There is strong evidence of a rich Buddhist culture at Sri Ksetra, along with the existence of Hindu religion.

Royal Names

Several inscriptions discovered at Sri Ksetra possess possible royal names and dynastic titles. Below is a table of translated Pyu funerary inscriptions found on four stone burial urns, excavated outside the city walls of Sri Ksetra from what is believed to be a royal burial site.[14] First translated by O. Blagden in 1917, these inscriptions give insights into Pyu kingship and possible dating of Sri Ksetra.[15][16]

Name Date of death found in inscription Equivalent date
using Early Pyu Era		 Equivalent date
using Gupta Era		 Equivalent date
using Standard Pyu Era
Relative of Thuriya Wikyama 35 113 CE 354 CE 673 CE
Thuriya Wikyama
(Suriya Vikrama)		 Fifth month of year 50 128 369 July 688 (4 July to 1 August)
Hayi Wikyama
(Hari Vikrama)		 24th day of 2nd month of year 57 135 376 13 April 695
Thiha Wikyama
(Siha Vikrama)		 4th day of 2nd month of year 80 158 399 8 April 718

Current inscriptional evidence indicate two distinct dynastic names, Wikyama (Vikrama) and Warman (Varman).[17] The first dynasty, called the Wikyama (Vikrama) Dynasty, is believed by G.H. Luce and Than Tun to have launched the Pyu calendar with the epochal date of 22 March 638, which later became the Burmese calendar, in 640 AD.[18][19] Given the evidence for the of dating Sri Ksetra earlier then the seventh century, it is likely that Pyu kings existed prior to names mentioned on the burial urns. Burmese chronicle sources, on the other hand, suggest the Sri Ksetra dynasty was established in 444 BC by King Duttabaung, however no archaeological evidence has been from this early date.[20]

Legend

According to Hmannan Yazawin, the royal chronicle of the Konbaung Dynasty, the Kingdom of Sri Ksetra was founded by two brothers named Maha Thanbawa and Sula Thanbawa in 484 BC. The brothers were scions of the Tagaung Kingdom located in Upper Burma, and ultimately descended from kings Abhiyaza and Dazayaza, both of whom belonged to the Sakya clan of the Buddha. The brothers had been born blind, and ordered to be executed at birth by their own father Thado Maha Yaza for their blindness. Their mother, Keinnayi Dewi, however had raised them in secret until 482 BC when the father discovered their existence, and ordered them killed once again. Their mother put the blind princes on a raft by their mother down the Irrawaddy river before the executioners of the king arrived. Adrift in the river, the brothers miraculously gained sight with the help of an ogress.[21]

With their newfound vision, the brothers arrived at the environs of Sri Ksetra (near present-day Pyay (Prome)), whose Pyu inhabitants had been at war with Kanyan people. Having to lost their chief to the war, the Pyu nominated the newly arrived Maha Thanbawa as chief. The "Kingdom" of Sri Ksetra was founded in 484 CE. (Hmannan does not indicate the extent of the kingdom.) In all, a total of 27 kings of this dynasty are said to have reigned for 578 years.[22][23]

Hmannan continues that the end of the kingdom came in 94 AD due to a civil war between the Pyu and the Kanyan, two of the three main ethnic groups of the kingdom. (The Mranma (Burmans) were the third.) The Pyu initially emerged victorious over the Kanyan. But the victors soon broke into three rival groups, and a second round of war ensued. Taking advantage of the confusion, a fourth group, the Mon of Lower Burma drove all indigenous groups out of Sri Ksetra. One of the refugee groups led by Thamudarit, nephew of the last king of Sri Ksetra, wandered on for a dozen years. In 107 AD, Thamudarit founded the city of Pagan (Bagan) and the Pagan Dynasty.[24]

Art

Stone bas-relief of stupa, sandstone, Pyu period, found in the Khin Ba mound, Sri Ksetra.

The artistic legacy of the Pyu is embodied at Sri Ksetra. Since the early twentieth century, excavations at this Pyu site have uncovered a significant amount of Pyu art, in contrast to the minimal finds at Beikthano and Halin.[25] The objects recovered from Sri Ksetra can be dated between the fourth to ninth centuries AD, however difficulties in dating Pyu art has meant that most artistic remains are broadly dated between this period. An art historical study of a stele discovered at Sri Ksetra suggests a first century AD date, which would make it the earliest Pyu artwork, however this is contested among scholars.[26] Further Scholarship has also demonstrated that the art of the Pyu draws from a range of influences, from both Indian and Southeast Asian cultures.

The artistic remains uncovered at Sri Ksetra are primarily Buddhist. However the existence of sculpture and fragments depicting Hindu deities, most often Vishnu, suggests that Vaishnavism was practice alongside Buddhism.[27] Remains at Sri Ksetra suggest a thriving Buddhist culture that existed in this Pyu settlement. The variety of Buddhist material includes votive tablets, stone sculptures, bronze and other precious metal sculptures, architectural fragments and reliquary objects. Along with other artefacts including hand made beads crafted from stone, glass, terracotta and bone, rings and silver bowls and plates. A chronology of Pyu art, demonstrating developments and characteristics of a ‘Pyu’ style, has not yet been established.[28]

Dating Pyu art

Statue of Vishnu and Lakshmi, sandstone, Pyu period, found in near Hmaw Zar station.

Dating Pyu art at Sri Ksetra is difficult. Studies conducted at Sri Ksetra have used a variety of methods including radio carbon dating, stylistic analysis and palaeographic studies to determine dates, however much of the dating is still contested among scholars.[29] A palaeographic study of a gold leaf manuscript containing Pali, recovered from the Khin Ba mound, suggests the script could be dated to the fifth century AD, much earlier then the original seventh century AD date it was attributed.[30] This study was important in reconsidering the date for the Khin Ba mound, however this dating has not been accepted by all scholars. An argument against dating Pyu material at Sri Ksetra earlier then the seventh century AD is based on the nature of stylistic comparison, with scholars suggesting that while an artefact may have similar attributes to a fifth century AD culture in India, this culture may have been active into the seventh century AD which could mean that the similarities could have derive from this later date.[31] Continued research needs to be undertaken at Sri Ksetra to ratify these issues surrounding dating Pyu art.

Influences

Pyu art at Sri Ksetra has a number of influences. Art demonstrates similar qualities to the art of Southern India including the Gupta and post-Gupta periods, Andhra Pradesh and Sri Lanka. Silver Buddha sculptures recovered from the relic chamber of the Khin Ba mound demonstrate stylistic qualities with Sri Lanka, including broad shoulders, shortened necks, individual hair curls and transparent robes.[32] While cultural influences on the Pyu focuses on Indian similarities, scholarship has also demonstrated similarities with the Mon of Burma and Dvaravati of Thailand.[33] Buddha and stupa triads, use of megaliths and shared imagery have been cited as demonstrating the influences of these neighbouring Southeast Asian cultures.[34] The wide-ranging comparisons found in Pyu art demonstrates the complexity in studying the art of this culture.

See also

References

  1. ↑ Htin Aung, Maung (1970). Burmese History before 1287: A Defence of the Chronicles. Oxford: The Asoka Society, 8 - 10.
  2. ↑ Aung-Thwin, Michael (1996). "Kingdom of Bagan". In Gillian Cribbs. Myanmar Land of the Spirits. Guernsey: Co & Bear Productions, 77.
  3. ↑ Moore, Elizabeth (2012). The Pyu Landscape: Collected Articles. Myanmar: Department of Archaeology, 175.
  4. ↑ Luce, Gordon H. (1985). Phases of Pre-Pagan: language and history. New York: Oxford University Press, 47.
  5. ↑ Aung-Thwin, Michael (2005). The mists of Rāmañña: The Legend that was Lower Burma (illustrated ed.). Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 24 - 26.
  6. ↑ Hudson, Bob (2012). "A thousand years before Bagan: radiocarbon dates and Myanmar’s ancient Pyu cities". Paper presented at Early Myanmar and its Global Connections Conference, Bagan, 5 - 7.https://www.academia.edu/5489143/Hudson_Bob_2012_A_Thousand_Years_Before_Bagan_Radiocarbon_dates_and_Myanmars_ancient_Pyu_cities_Revision_3
  7. ↑ Hudson (2012). "A thousand years before Bagan: radiocarbon dates and Myanmar’s ancient Pyu cities", 5 - 7.
  8. ↑ Aung-Thwin (2005). The mists of Rāmañña: The Legend that was Lower Burma, 24 - 26.
  9. ↑ Moore (2012). The Pyu Landscape, 195.
  10. ↑ "Sri Ksetra Survey Map, 2005 - 2007" (2008). Field School of Archaeology Pyay and University of Sydney. https://www.academia.edu/2411552/Hudson-2008-archaeological_survey_map_of_SRIKSETRA
  11. ↑ Luce (1985). Phases of Pre-Pagan: language and history, 47.
  12. ↑ Phayre, Lt. Gen. Sir Arthur P. (1883). History of Burma (1967 ed.). London: Susil Gupta, 17.
  13. ↑ Htin Aung (1970). Burmese History before 1287: A Defence of the Chronicles, 8 - 10.
  14. ↑ Moore (2012). The Pyu Landscape: Collected Articles, 210.
  15. ↑ Blagden, CO (1917). "The 'Pyu' inscriptions", Journal of the Burma Research Society 7: 37 - 44.
  16. ↑ Than Tun (1964). Studies in Burmese History (in Burmese) 1. Yangon: Maha Dagon, 42.
  17. ↑ Moore (2012). The Pyu Landscape: Collected Articles, 210.
  18. ↑ Luce 1970: 330
  19. ↑ Than Tun (1964). Studies in Burmese History, 40.
  20. ↑ Tin, Pe Maung; Luce, Gordon H. (1923). The Glass Palace Chronicle of the Kings of Burma. Lodon: Oxford University Press, 14.
  21. ↑ Royal Historical Commission of Burma (1832). Hmannan Yazawin (in Burmese) 1–3 (2003 ed.). Yangon: Ministry of Information, Myanmar, 164–165.
  22. ↑ Hmannan Vol. 1 (2003), 168–170.
  23. ↑ Phayre (1883). History of Burma, 17.
  24. ↑ Hmannan Vol. 1 (2003), 185–188.
  25. ↑ Moore (2012). The Pyu Landscape: Collected Articles, 176.
  26. ↑ Gutman, Pamela and Hudson, Bob (2012-13). "A First Century Stele from Sriksetra." Bulletin de l'École Française d'Extreme-Orient 99: 17.
  27. ↑ Luce (1985). Phases of Pre-Pagan, 55.
  28. ↑ Guy, John (1997). "A Warrior-Ruler Stele from Śrī Ksetra, Pyu, Burma" (PDF). Journal of The Siam Society 85.
  29. ↑ Moore (2012). The Pyu Landscape: Collected Articles, 175.
  30. ↑ Stargardt, Janice (1995). "The Four Oldest Surviving Pali Texts: the Results of the Cambridge Symposium on the Golden Pali Text of Sri Ksetra (Burma), April 1995". Journal of the Pali Text Society XXI: 212.
  31. ↑ Brown, Robert (2001). “Pyu art: Looking East and West”, Orientations 32: 35.
  32. ↑ "The Great Silver Reliquary of Sri Ksetra: Where Early Epigraphy and Buddhist Art Meet," The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 35:06, posted by MET Media.
  33. ↑ Galloway, Charlotte (2010). “Ways of Seeing a Pyu Mon and Dvaravati Artistic Continuum”. Bulletin of the Indo Pacific Prehistory Association 30: 70.
  34. ↑ Brown (2001). “Pyu art: Looking East and West”, 39.

Bibliography

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