Start School Later movement


The Start School Later movement refers to a series of efforts by health care professionals, sleep scientists, educators, economists, legislators, parents, students, and other concerned citizens to restore a later start to the school day, based on a growing body of evidence that starting middle and high schools too early in the morning is unhealthy, counterproductive, and incompatible with adolescent sleep needs and patterns. During the second half of the 20th century, many public schools in the United States began shifting instructional time earlier than the more conventional bell time, thought to be about 9 a.m. Today it is common for American schools to begin the instructional day in the 7 a.m. hour and end about seven hours later, around 2 p.m.[1] Most sleep research suggests that morning classes should begin no earlier than 8:30 a.m. for middle and high school students.[2]

Advocates of a return to later school start times argue that sleep and school hours should be viewed as a public health issue, citing evidence linking early school start times to widespread sleep deprivation among teenagers as well as a wide array of acute and chronic physical, psychological, and educational problems. Not only do students consistently get significantly more sleep on school nights when their schools move to later start times, but later school hours have been consistently linked with improved school performance, reduced impulsiveness, and greater motivation, as well as with lower rates of depression, tardiness, truancy, and morning automobile accidents.[3][4] Recent studies suggest that early school start times disproportionately hurt economically disadvantaged students and may even negatively impact future earning potential of students, offsetting any financial savings to the school system attributed to earlier hours.[5]

History

In the early 1990s, the University of Minnesota's landmark School Start Time Study tracked high school students from two Minneapolis-area districts – Edina, a suburban district that changed its opening hour from 7:20 a.m. to 8:30 a.m. and the Minneapolis Public Schools, which changed their opening from 7:20 a.m. to 8:40 a.m. Many positive benefits to students were found, including:

A longitudinal follow-up study of the Minneapolis Public Schools after five years revealed that these and other positive benefits had persisted. In 2014, a three-year project using data from more than 9,000 students attending eight high schools in three states, found that when schools switched to a start time of 8:30 a.m. or later, attendance, standardized test scores and academic performance improved, and tardiness, substance abuse, symptoms of depression, consumption of caffeinated drinks, and the rate of traffic accidents involving teen drivers decreased.[6]

Since the 1990s over 250 individual schools or districts in 42 states have delayed their start times,[7][8][9] and scores of others are considering a change at any given time.[10][11] Despite sporadic reform efforts on the part of educators, public health officials, legislators, and grassroots groups, however, most American middle and high schools still require students to begin instruction prior to 8:30 a.m. Failure of efforts to delay start times over the years has primarily been due to pushback from community members who fear that a shift to later school hours will be prohibitively expensive and/or disrupt after-school sports and other extracurricular schedules, student jobs, daycare arrangement, teacher training, or time for homework[12]

Shifted circadian rhythms and sleep deprivation in adolescence

Proponents of a return to later school hours cite abundant evidence that starting middle and high school before about 8:30 or 9 a.m. is incompatible with the biological clocks of teenagers and young adults.[13] In 1993, a team led by Mary Carskadon, PhD, of Brown University showed that changes in circadian biology during puberty drive a "sleep-phase delay," a shift in the sleep-wake patterns of adolescents that leads them to fall asleep and wake up later than younger and older people. Subsequent studies have confirmed these findings, explored the impact of school start times on the sleep needs and patterns of adolescents.,[14] and demonstrated a "phase shift" in the release of melatonin at puberty, which appears to be involved in shifting the sleep-wake cycle several hours later during the adolescent years.[15][16][17] This same shift to a delayed phase in the release of melatonin during puberty has also been seen in other mammals.[18]

The shifted circadian rhythms associated with puberty make it difficult, if not impossible, for many teenagers—who may have to rise at 5 or 6 a.m. to get ready and commute to school in time for 7 a.m. school bells—to get sufficient sleep on school nights.[19] Even discounting for the distractions of homework and extracurricular demands and electronics, most adolescents find it difficult to fall asleep before about 11 p.m. or rise before about 8 a.m. In addition, they need to sleep in until 8 a.m. or so to get the 9 or more hours of sleep that most sleep research suggests they need.[16] As a result, many teenagers arrive at school sleep-deprived.[20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27] The most recent data from the Youth Risk Behavior Survey show that 70% of American high school students are sleep-deprived and about 40% get six or fewer hours of sleep per night.[28]

Health and safety impact of early school hours

Very early middle and high school hours have been associated with increased stimulant abuse, weight gain and diabetes risk,[29] immune disorders, mood swings, depression, and suicidal ideation, as well as reduced impulse control.[30][31] In addition, early school start times have been associated with drowsy driving in new teen drivers and higher car crash rates. Ending school early in the afternoon may also increase the risk of engaging in high-risk health behaviors among sleep-deprived adolescents.[32] Sending children to school before sunrise also means they must wait or walk in dark, low visibility settings.[33]

Impact on school performance

Sleep deprivation can result in low motivation, difficulty concentrating, restlessness, slowed reaction times, lack of energy, frequent errors, forgetfulness, and impaired decision-making skills. Studies, many spearheaded by Kyla Wahlstrom and her research team at University of Minnesota's Center for Applied Research and Educational Improvement (CAREI), have tied these effects to early school start times, which, in turn, have repeatedly been linked to increased rates of tardiness, truancy, absenteeism, and dropping out.[34][35] In 2012 a study using data from Wake County, North Carolina, showed that delaying middle school start times by one hour, from roughly 7:30 to 8:30, increases standardized test scores by at least two percentile points in math and one percentile point in reading. The effect was largest for students with below-average test scores, suggesting that later start times would narrow gaps in student achievement.[36]

Equity impact of early school hours

The impact of later start times on school performance—including reduced truancy, absenteeism, and increased overall academic achievement—is approximately double in economically disadvantaged students.[37] This discrepancy may be explained, at least in part, by the fact that privileged students have opportunities to attend private schools (most of which start instruction after 8 a.m.) and/or save time by driving or being driven to school.

Economic impact of early school hours

A recent Hamilton Project Report published by the Brookings Institution concluded that starting class later can be an immediate and inexpensive way to boost health, safety, and achievement for all students. The authors, economists Brian A. Jacob and Jonah E. Rockoff, predicted that starting high schools one hour later, at about 9 a.m., would result in roughly $17,500 in increased future earnings per student in present value—a benefit:cost ratio of at least 9:1 even when changing schedules requires upfront investment to alter bus schedules and/or accommodate later after-school activities.[38]

Calls for reform by educators, public health leaders, and legislators

As early as 1993, sleep researchers and healthcare leaders began encouraging school administrators to move middle and high school hours to 8:30 a.m. or later.[39][40] Today numerous health, educational, and civic leaders are calling for a return to later, healthier school start times,[41] including U.S. Education Secretary Arne Duncan,[42] the Centers for Disease Control,[43] the National Sleep Foundation,[44] and the National Institutes of Health.[45][46][47] In 2014 the American Academy of Pediatrics issued a policy statement recommending that middle and high schools start no earlier than 8:30 a.m. as an effective means of addressing the serious public health issue of insufficient sleep in adolescents,[48] a recommendation supported by the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, the American Thoracic Society, the National Association of School Nurses, and the Society of Pediatric Nurses.[49] The National Education Association issued a resolution supporting school schedules that follow research-based recommendations regarding the sleep patterns of age groups.[50] Several state medical societies have issued position statements or resolutions supporting later school start times,[51] as have both the Washington and Virginia state Parent Teachers Associations (PTAs) and the Seattle Educators Association[52][53] A move to a later school start time is also consistent with the Healthy People 2020 Objective to increase the proportion of students in grades 9 to 12 who get sufficient sleep.[54]

California Congresswoman Zoe Lofgren has repeatedly introduced versions of a "ZZZ's to A's" Bill and Resolution to the U.S. Congress since 1998, all proposing limits on the hours at which American high schools can begin required instruction. All thus far have failed.

Numerous bills related to sleep and school start times have been introduced to state legislatures since the 1990s,[55] including the Florida, Maryland, Virginia, Tennessee, New Jersey, Maine, Washington, Nevada, and Massachusetts legislatures. In 2014 Maryland was the first state to pass school start time legislation via HB 883, sponsored by Delegate Aruna Miller (D, Montgomery County) and passed unanimously by the Maryland General Assembly. This legislation required the state Department of Health and Mental Hygiene to conduct a study on student sleep needs, explore ways school systems can shift hours to accommodate them, and develop recommendations about whether state public schools should adopt a policy of start times at 8 a.m. or later,[56] resulting in a Report on Safe and Healthy School Hours. Two years later the Maryland state legislature passed the Orange Ribbon Bill for Healthy School Hours (HB39), also sponsored by Delegate Miller, a voluntary, no-cost, incentive program recogizing districts for implementing evidence-based school hours. In 2015 New Jersey passed a law (S2484) requiring the state Department of Education to study the options and benefits of starting school later at middle and high schools and recommend whether the state should establish a pilot program to test later school start times in select middle schools and high schools throughout the state.[57]

The Fairfax County (Virginia) Public Schools (FCPS) Board of Education passed a resolution in April 2012 affirming their goal to find ways to start county high schools after 8 a.m. to allow students to get sufficient sleep, a resolution supported by the Washington Post's Editorial Board.[58] In June 2013 FCPS contracted a team from the Children’s National Medical Center's Division of Sleep Medicine to partner with Fairfax County students, parents, educators, administrators, and other community stakeholders to develop a plan to accomplish this task.[59] This effort led the Washington Post's Editorial Board to endorse later school start times as a "smarter way to start high schoolers' days" in August 2013.[60] This editorial was tweeted by U.S. Education Secretary Arne Duncan along with the comment that starting high school later and letting teens sleep more was a "common sense" way "to improve student achievement that too few have implemented."[61] As new school superintendent Karen Garza laid out her vision for the district in September 2013, she vowed to push for later school start times.[62] On October 1, 2013, Montgomery County, MD School Superintendent Joshua Starr recommended that high school start times be moved 50 minutes to 8:15 a.m., with a proposed start in the 2015-16 school year.[63]

In England, Oxford's Sleep and Circadian Neurosciences Institute (SCNi) in 2015 began a study involving sleep education for teenagers in England and Wales. Professors Russell Foster and Colin Espie with their project "Teensleep" will assess whether ten half-hour lessons in year 10 will improve academic performance and well-being. Taught by specially trained teachers, the lessons introduce scientific theory on the importance of sleep and the effects of sleep deprivation as well as techniques for stress management. The study has been redesigned since it was originally announced; it was previously considerably more ambitious, including a later start time at about twenty-five schools, sleep education in others, both in some schools and neither in others. Students will be evaluated before and after the sleep education periods.[64]

Grassroots advocacy

Community groups have sporadically arisen in various school communities since the 1990s, sometimes prompting studies and reform proposals but often dying out as concerned, active families grew out of the system.[14][65] Probably the most visible and longest lasting of the grassroots advocacy groups is SLEEP in Fairfax County, VA, which was formed in 2004 to increase awareness of teen sleep needs and to change middle and high school start times in the Fairfax County Public Schools (FCPS) to later in the morning. More recently, social media tools have allowed once isolated advocates to unite efforts and share resources. In the fall of 2011, an online petition effort galvanized a national organization, Start School Later, a coalition of health professionals, sleep scientists, educators, parents, students, and other concerned citizens dedicated to increasing public awareness about the relationship between sleep and school hours and to ensuring school start times compatible with health, safety, education, and equity. Active petition drives in 2012 and 2013 among the coalition's Washington DC Metro area chapters have spurred several counties to re-open their discussions[66][67][68][69] and helped spearhead a study group to reconsider the issue in the Montgomery County Public Schools.[70] Start School Later also maintains a website with links to references and other educational materials on sleep and school start times,[71] and in 2013 partnered with The Lloyd Society to co-sponsor an educational symposium featuring keynote speaker Judith Owens, MD, MPH, Director of Sleep Medicine at the Children's National Medical Center, whose research interests include the neurobehavioral and health consequences of sleep problems in children, pharmacologic treatment of pediatric sleep disorders, and cultural and psychosocial issues that impact sleep.[72][73] Many advocates also support campaigns using materials from California attorney Dennis Nolan's website, an exhaustive and frequently updated compilation of research about adolescent sleep deprivation and its relationship to early school start times.[14] In the spring of 2013 the Mayo Clinic updated its online information about teen sleep to recognize grassroots efforts to start school at later times in sync with the internal clocks of adolescents.[74]

Current sleep-friendly schools and districts

References

  1. ↑ "School Start Times for Middle School and High School Students — United States, 1738 School Year". www.cdc.gov. Retrieved 2015-08-08. line feed character in |title= at position 84 (help)
  2. ↑ Group, Adolescent Sleep Working; Committee on Adolescence, And Council on School Health (2014-08-25). "School Start Times for Adolescents". Pediatrics: peds.2014–1697. doi:10.1542/peds.2014-1697. ISSN 0031-4005. PMID 25156998.
  3. ↑ "School Start Times for Middle School and High School Students — United States, 2011–12 School Year". www.cdc.gov. Retrieved 2015-08-08.
  4. ↑ Group, Adolescent Sleep Working; Committee on Adolescence, And Council on School Health (2014-08-25). "School Start Times for Adolescents". Pediatrics: peds.2014–1697. doi:10.1542/peds.2014-1697. ISSN 0031-4005. PMID 25156998.
  5. ↑ (Jacob & Rockoff, Organizing Schools to Improve Student Achievement: Start Times, Grade Configurations, and Teacher Assignments Hamilton Project, Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, Sept. 2011, http://teensneedsleep.files.wordpress.com/2012/02/jacob-and-rockoff-organizing-schools-to-improve-student-achievement.pdf
  6. ↑ Kyla L. Wahlstrom, Ph.D., Examining the Impact of Later High School Start Times on the Health and Academic Performance of High School Students: A Multi-Site Study. Center for Applied Research and Educational Improvement. Final Report. University of Minnesota, February 2014. http://conservancy.umn.edu/bitstream/11299/162769/1/Impact%20of%20Later%20Start%20Time%20Final%20Report.pdf
  7. ↑ University of Minnesota. "Later high school start times benefit students│Education and Human Development". Cehdvision2020.umn.edu. Retrieved 2013-05-28.
  8. ↑ Wahlstrom K, Changing times: Findings from the first longitudinal study of later high school start times NASSP Bull 2002;86(633):3-21, http://www.cehd.umn.edu/carei/publications/documents/Bulletin2002
  9. ↑ "Success Stories." http://www.startschoollater.net/success-stories.html.
  10. ↑ Schools Recently Delaying Start Times http://schoolstarttime.org/2011/06/12/schools-recently-delaying-start-times/
  11. ↑ Start Time Activity By State http://www.startschoollater.net/start-time-activity-by-state.html
  12. ↑ "School Start Times for Middle School and High School Students — United States, 2011–12 School Year". www.cdc.gov. Retrieved 2015-08-08.
  13. ↑ National Sleep Foundation. Backgrounder: Later School Start Times http://www.sleepfoundation.org/article/hot-topics/backgrounder-later-school-start-times
  14. 1 2 3 McGeorge, David. Sleepless in America: School start times (Editorial). Education and Health 2012;30(3):56-58
  15. ↑ Later Start Times for High School Students, University of Minnesota, June 2002, http://www.cehd.umn.edu/research/highlights/Sleep/
  16. 1 2 Carskadon MA et al., Pubertal changes in daytime sleepiness, Sleep 1980;2:453-460
  17. ↑ Carskadon MA, Vierira C, Acebo C, Association between puberty and delayed phase preference, Sleep 1993;16(3):258-262
  18. ↑ Hagenauer, M. H.; King, A. F.; Possidente, B; McGinnis, M. Y.; Lumia, A. R.; Peckham, E. M.; Lee, T. M. (2011). "Changes in circadian rhythms during puberty in Rattus norvegicus: Developmental time course and gonadal dependency". Hormones and Behavior 60 (1): 46–57. doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2011.03.001. PMC 3112245. PMID 21397604.
  19. ↑ Carskadon MA et al., Adolescent sleep patterns, circadian timing and sleepiness at a transition to early school days, Sleep 1998;21(8):871-881
  20. ↑ Hansen et al., The impact of school daily schedule on adolescent sleep, Pediatrics 2005;115(6):1555-1561, http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/reprint/115/6/1555.pdf
  21. ↑ Eaton, McKnight-Eily L et al.,Prevalence of insufficient, borderline, and optimal hours of sleep among high school students – United States, 2007. Journal of Adolescent Health, 2010;46:399–401,
  22. ↑ Roberts, R. E.; Roberts, C. R.; Duong, H. T. (2009). "Sleepless in Adolescence: Prospective Data on Sleep Deprivation, Health and Functioning". Journal of Adolescence 32 (5): 1045–1057. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2009.03.007. PMC 2735816. PMID 19361854.
  23. ↑ Knutson KL, Lauderdale DS, Sociodemographic and behavioral predictors of bed time and wake time among U.S. adolescents aged 15–17 years J Pediatrics 2009;154(3):426–430, http://teensneedsleep.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/knutson-et-al-sociodemographic-and-behavioral-predictors-of-bed-time-and-wake-time-among-u-s-adolescents-aged-15-to-17-years.pdf
  24. ↑ Wolfson AR et al., Middle school start times: The importance of a good night’s sleep for young adolescents Behavioral Sleep Med 2007;5(3):194-209
  25. ↑ Wolfson AR, Carskadon MA, Sleep schedules and daytime functioning in adolescents Child Development 1998;69(4):875-887,
  26. ↑ Carskadon MA et al., Adolescent sleep patterns, circadian timing, and sleepiness at a transition to early school days Sleep 1998;21(8):871-881, http://www.sleepforscience.org/stuff/contentmgr/files/5598e427689c
  27. ↑ Dexter D et al., Sleep, sleepiness, and school start times: A preliminary study Wis Medical J 2003;102(W1):42-46, http://www.wisconsinmedicalsociety.org/_WMS/publications/wmj/pdf/1
  28. ↑ "CDC Online Newsroom - Media Advisory: September 26, 2011". Cdc.gov. 2011-09-26. Retrieved 2013-05-28.
  29. ↑ Sleep Loss and Obesity http://startschoollater.pbworks.com/w/page/60412574/Sleep%20Loss%20and%20Obesity
  30. ↑ Sleep Loss and Behavioral or Emotional Issues http://startschoollater.pbworks.com/w/page/60412566/Sleep%20Loss%20and%20Behavioral%20or%20Emotional%20Issues
  31. ↑ Consequences of Insufficient Sleep in Adolescents http://startschoollater.pbworks.com/w/page/60412578/Consequences%20of%20Insufficient%20Sleep%20-%20Adolescents
  32. ↑ McKnight-Eily Lr et al., Relationships between hours of sleep and health-risk behaviors in US adolescent students Prev Med 2011;53(4-5):271-273
  33. ↑ Sleep Loss and Accidents or Injury http://startschoollater.pbworks.com/w/page/60412558/Sleep%20Loss%20and%20Accidents%20or%20Injury
  34. ↑ Morgan LA, The Effects of Sleep Deprivation on School Attendance and Dropout Rates, Sleeping Resources 2012 http://sleepingresources.com/sleep-deprivation-and-dropout-rates/
  35. ↑ Sleep Loss and Academic Achievement http://startschoollater.pbworks.com/w/page/60412535/Sleep%20Loss%20and%20Academic%20Achievement
  36. ↑ Edwards F, Do schools begin too early? Education Next 2012;12(3) http://educationnext.org/do-schools-begin-too-early/#.T6JrcBYJQKM.facebook
  37. ↑ Jacob BA, Rockoff JE, Organizing Schools to Improve Student Achievement: StartTimes, Grade Configurations, and Teacher Assignments. The Hamilton Project. Brookings: September 2011 http://www.brookings.edu/~/media/research/files/papers/2011/9/organization%20jacob%20rockoff/092011_organize_jacob_rockoff_paper.pdf
  38. ↑ Jacob BA, Rockoff JE, Organizing Schools to Improve Student Achievement: StartTimes, Grade Configurations, and Teacher Assignments. The Hamilton Project. Brookings: September 2011 http://www.brookings.edu/~/media/research/files/papers/2011/9/organization%20jacob%20rockoff/092011_organize_jacob_rockoff_paper.pdf
  39. ↑ Minnesota Medical Association Letter to Superintendent Dragseth, Edina Public Schools, 1995 http://legacy.edina.k12.mn.us/news/reports/laterstart/mmaletter.html
  40. ↑ MedChi, the Maryland State Medical Society. Resolution on reforming school schedules. September 12, 1998 http://www.bigtent.com/usr/files/66481228_2_00_MedChi_1998.pdf
  41. ↑ Position Statements and Resolutions on Sleep and School Start Timeshttp://www.startschoollater.net/position-statements.html
  42. ↑ Education secretary: Start school later in day, UPI, September 5, 2013, http://www.ctpost.com/news/politics/article/Education-chief-Maybe-start-school-later-in-day-4785991.php
  43. ↑ "School Start Times for Middle School and High School Students — United States, 2011–12 School Year". www.cdc.gov. Retrieved 2015-08-08.
  44. ↑ Backgrounder: Later School Start Times http://www.sleepfoundation.org/article/hot-topics/backgrounder-later-school-start-times
  45. ↑ Working Group on Problem Sleepiness National Center on Sleep Disorders Research, NIH, August 1997, pp. 1-12, http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/prof/sleep/pslp_wg.pdf.
  46. ↑ Problem Sleepiness NIH September 1997, No. 97-4071, pp. 1-4, http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/public/sleep/pslp_fs.pdf
  47. ↑ Educating Youth About Sleep and Drowsy Driving NIH September 1998, pp. 9-17, http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/prof/sleep/dwydrv_y.pdf
  48. ↑ "School Start Times for Adolescents". Pediatrics.aappublications.org. 2014-08-25. Retrieved 2015-02-16.
  49. ↑ "Position Statements". Start School Later. Retrieved 2015-08-08.
  50. ↑ "Resolution C-3 (Adequate Rest)" (PDF). 2014 Handbook. National Education Association. Retrieved August 8, 2015.
  51. ↑ Position Statements and Resolutions of Sleep and School Start Times http://www.startschoollater.net/position-statements.html
  52. ↑ Washington State PTA Resolution http://wsptagrassroots.blogspot.com/2012/05/resolutions-all-pass-as-written.html
  53. ↑ Virginia Resolution on the Impact of School Start Time http://www.vapta.org/documents-library/doc_view/2612-2006-the-impact-of-school-start-times-on-student-health-adopted.html
  54. ↑ Healthy People 2020 Sleep Health http://www.healthypeople.gov/2020/topicsobjectives2020/objectiveslist.aspx?topicId=38
  55. ↑ Start School Later Legislation http://startschoollater.pbworks.com/w/page/65117447/Legislation
  56. ↑ Donna St. George. Teen sleep: State to study health issues and school start times. Washington Post. April 4, 2014. http://www.washingtonpost.com/local/education/teen-sleep-state-to-study-health-issues-and-school-start-times/2014/04/04/aec97254-bc29-11e3-9a05-c739f29ccb08_story.html
  57. ↑ "Christie agrees to study later school start times". Retrieved 2015-08-11.
  58. ↑ Board, Editorial (2012-04-18). "Fairfax revisits when high school classes should start - The Washington Post". Articles.washingtonpost.com. Retrieved 2015-02-16.
  59. ↑
  60. ↑ Board, Editorial (2013-08-18). "A smarter way to start high-schoolers’ days". The Washington Post. Retrieved 2015-02-16.
  61. ↑ Duncan, Arne (arneduncan). “Common sense to improve student achievement that too few have implemented: let teens sleep more, start school later wapo.st/14WCs4R.” 19 Aug 2013, 6.41 p.m. Tweet.
  62. ↑ T. Rees Shapiro (2013-09-02). "Fairfax County schools chief outlines vision for district". The Washington Post. Retrieved 2015-02-16.
  63. ↑ "MCPS Public Announcements". Montgomeryschoolsmd.org. 2013-10-01. Retrieved 2015-02-16.
  64. ↑ "Teensleep". Sleep & Circadian Neuroscience Institute. University of Oxford. 2015. Retrieved 21 April 2016.
  65. ↑ Snider, Terra Ziporyn Snider. Later School Start Times are a Public Health Issue. Education Week. May 16, 2012 (print edition). http://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2012/05/16/31snider.h31.html?tkn=TNOFMKpCmFBd%2FGUP9T%2FMj%2F2CmeBUG%2FwUXqzn&intc=es
  66. ↑ Two more districts consider later start times for high school (Editorial Board) Washington Post March 8, 2013 http://articles.washingtonpost.com/2013-03-08/opinions/37561455_1_school-older-students-academic-performance
  67. ↑ St. George, Donna Later start times at D.C. area high schools being considered by more districts Washington Post February 28, 2013 http://www.washingtonpost.com/local/education/efforts-to-change-high-school-start-times-expand-in-washington-region/2013/02/28/9ddab8da-709a-11e2-8b8d-e0b59a1b8e2a_story.html
  68. ↑ Burris, Joe Maryland school systems study later start for high schools: Movement stems from concerns that early school starts hurt classroom performanceBaltimore Sun March 10, 2013 http://www.baltimoresun.com/news/maryland/education/bs-md-ar-early-school-start-0308-20130310,0,5950842.story
  69. ↑ St. George, Donna Later start times at D.C. area high schools being considered by more districts Washington Post February 28, 2013 http://articles.washingtonpost.com/2013-02-28/local/37349774_1_school-districts-school-board-school-systems
  70. ↑ St. George, Donna Sleepy teens: Montgomery to study later high school start times Washington Post February 11, 2013 http://articles.washingtonpost.com/2012-12-11/local/35767223_1_school-day-school-leaders-school-buses
  71. ↑ Sue Shellanbarger The Latest Statistics on Teen Sleep Needs Wall Street Journal, July 16, 2013 http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424127887324348504578610114119467722.html
  72. ↑ Exploring the Adolescent Need for Sleep http://thelloydsociety.org/about/events/
  73. ↑ Cairney, Gina. "Education Week: Experts Make a Case for Later School Start Times". Edweek.org. Retrieved 2013-05-28.
  74. ↑ Teen sleep: Why is your teen so tired? MayoClinic.com http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/teens-health/CC00019/NSECTIONGROUP=2
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