Stephen McNallen

Stephen A. McNallen

McNallen in 2005
Born Stephen Anthony McNallen
(1948-10-15) 15 October 1948
Breckenridge, Texas, United States
Nationality American
Education Midwestern University, Wichita Falls, Texas
Occupation Spiritual leader (goði)
Years active 1970–present
Home town Grass Valley, California
Religion Asatru
Spouse(s) Sheila Edlund (1997–present)

Stephen A. McNallen (born October 15, 1948) is a prominent American figure in the modern Pagan new religious movement of Heathenry. He is the leader (goði) and founder of the Asatru Folk Assembly (AFA), having previously been the founder of the Viking Brotherhood and the Asatrú Free Assembly.

Born in Breckenridge, Texas, McNallen developed an interest in pre-Christian Scandinavia after reading Edison Marshall's novel, The Viking, while in college. In 1969–70 he founded the Viking Brotherhood, through which he printed a newsletter, Runestone, in which he promoted a form of Heathenry that he came to call "Asatru". After spending four years serving abroad in the United States Army, he subsequently transformed the Viking Brotherhood into the Asatrú Free Assembly, through which he promoted Heathenry within the American Pagan community. He espoused a theory that he called "metagenetics", the idea that religions are connected to genetics, and thus argued that Heathenry was only suitable for those of Northern European ancestry. As membership grew, there was nevertheless internal conflict within the AFA, resulting in McNallen's decision to expel all of those with Neo-Nazi and racial extremist views from the organisation. In 1987 he disbanded the AFA, with its role being taken on by Valgard Murray's Asatru Alliance (AA).

Moving to Northern California, McNallen began a career in military journalism, traveling the world and writing articles for Soldier of Fortune magazine. Concerned by what he perceived as the growing impact of liberal and New Age ideas in Heathenry, he returned to active involvement in the Heathen movement in the mid-1990s, establishing the Asatrú Folk Assembly, which was headquartered in Grass Valley, California. In 1997 he was involved in the establishment of the International Asatru/Odinist Alliance alongside Murray's AA and the British Odinic Rite. He became involved in the incident surrounding the Kennewick Man, professing the view that it proved the existence of white people in the Americas in prehistory. Increasingly involved in environmentalism during the 2000s, he established an organisation to promote the preservation of elephants in Africa.

McNallen is a controversial figure in the Heathen and wider Pagan community. His espousal of ethnonationalist ideas and his insistence that Heathenry should be reserved for those of Northern European ancestry has resulted in accusations of racism from both other Pagans and the mainstream media. Conversely, many of those on the extreme right of the Heathen movement have accused him of being a race traitor for his opposition to Neo-Nazism and refusal to endorse white supremacism. His place in the Heathen community has attracted academic attention from the likes of Jeffrey Kaplan and Mattias Gardell.

Biography

Early life: 1948–76

McNallen was born in the rural town of Breckenridge, Texas on October 15, 1948 to a family of practicing Roman Catholics.[1][2] After high school, he attended Midwestern State University in Wichita Falls, Texas.[2] While there, he began to investigate alternative religions, reading up on the modern Pagan religion of Wicca and the writings of the occultist Aleister Crowley.[3] In his freshman year of college he read a novel, The Viking, by Edison Marshall, which generated his interest in the societies of pre-Christian Scandinavia.[4] According to him, upon reading this book he "got hooked on the spirit of the North".[1] He later noted that on initially becoming a Heathen, he went through "a stridently anti-Christian phase", and that while he later mellowed in his opinion of Christianity and Christians, he still believed the religion to be "a faulty faith, a foreign imposition on European soil" which had eroded "our traditional culture" and "done us great damage".[5]

"The racial or ethnic end of it was not immediately apparent to me. I think many people first get involved in racial politics, and then later decide that maybe Odinism or Asatrú attracts them. With me, it was quite the reverse as I was attracted to the religion first, simply for its own value, and it was only later, that I began to realize that there's an inherent connection between one's ethnicity and the religion that they follow."

— Stephen McNallen.[6]

In 1969–70, McNallen founded the Viking Brotherhood,[7] issuing a "Viking Manifesto" in which he stated that the Brotherhood was "dedicated to preserving, promoting and practicing the Norse religion as it was epitomized during the Viking Age, and to further the moral and ethical values of courage, individualism, and independence which characterized the Viking way of life."[8] Although having some religious objectives, the group placed greater emphasis on promoting what McNallen perceived as the Viking ideals – "courage, honor, and freedom".[1] In 1971–72 he began publishing a newsletter, Runestone, gaining his first eleven subscribers through an advert that he placed in Fate magazine.[1] He initially used the term "Norse religion" to describe the Heathen religion that he was practicing, before later adopting the term "Odinism" from the work of Danish Heathen Else Christensen, and then changing once again, this time to "Asatru", which he discovered in a book and subsequently popularized within the American Heathen community.[9]

After college, McNallen joined the United States Army, remaining with them for four years, volunteering for service in the Vietnam War before being stationed in West Germany.[9] Although frustrated at what he described as the "authoritarian stupidity" of the army, it impacted his views on warrior ethics and warrior ideals.[9] He started out as a cadet in the Reserve Officers' Training Corps and aspired to a career in the US Army's Special Forces.[10] After his discharge from the Army in 1976, McNallen hitchhiked across the Sahara Desert before returning to Europe and then to the United States.[2] and in the same year moved to Berkeley, California.[11]

The Asatrú Free Assembly and journalistic career: 1976–90

"What makes metagenetics so difficult for many to accept is its base assumption: the tradition (i.e., culture) is a matter of genetic inheritance, and it is for this reason that the compulsion to reawaken the Northern Way has come upon some but not others. Put another way, the reason that the gods choose to act through individuals of a particular national and racial stock is that the religious heritage that the gods personify never died, but rather has been handed down from generation to generation–albeit in a dormant state–until a time that the gods deem propitious for the rebirth of the Norse/Germanic tradition."

— Scholar of religious studies Jeffrey Kaplan.[12]

On his return to the United States in 1976 he transformed his Viking Brotherhood into the Asatrú Free Assembly (AFA).[9] The sociologist of religion Jennifer Snook described it as "the first national Heathen organization in the United States",[13] while according to the religious studies scholars Michael F. Strmiska and Baldur A. Sigurvinsson, the AFA "established many of the important organizational and ritual structures that remain operative" in American Heathenry into the 21st century.[14] The group established a store-front office in Breckenridge,[15] while through the AFA, McNallen continued publishing Runestone and produced booklets on Asatru.[9] He also began conducting religious ceremonies, or blóts, and lectured at Pagan events across the U.S.[9] He established groups known as guilds within the AFA to focus on particular endeavours, such as the Mead Brewing Guild and the Warrior Guild.[9] The latter published a quarterly, Wolf Age, in which McNallen displayed his fascination for warrior ethics.[16]

In the early 1980s McNallen used Runestone to begin promoting his theory of "metagenetics"; the idea that spirituality or religion was encoded in genetic material and thus passed down to one's descendants.[17] In formulating this concept he was influenced by is reading of Jungian psychology with its concept of archetypes existing within a collective unconscious.[18] Accordingly he described "Ásatrú as an expression of the soul of our [Nordic] race",[19] and thought that it was a "real mistake" for anyone not of Northern European ancestry to follow Heathenry.[20] Not everyone in the AFA embraced this theory, with it being rejected for instance by prominent AFA member Robert Stine,[12] although it would later be developed in new directions by the Heathen Edred Thorsson.[21] Snook characterized it as pseudoscience.[22]

As membership of the AFA grew, there were an increased number of internal conflicts, often along ideological lines.[9] This was exacerbated by the fact that all affiliated groups, known as kindreds, were autonomous, while the AFA promoted an individualistic ethos which allowed for a diversity of opinions.[23] This generated conflicts at the AFA's annual meetings, or Althings, for instance when Michael "Valgard" Murray – one of the Neo-Nazis within the AFA[24] – threatened to kill a fellow member of the Assembly because they were gay.[25] McNallen did not share these Nazi sympathies, disapproving of the Nazi ideal of a centralized totalitarian state, which he believed was anathema to the Heathen ideal of freedom; accordingly, he sought to push out the Neo-Nazis and other racial extremists from the group.[26] In 1978 he demanded that AFA members be prohibited from wearing Nazi uniforms and insignia at their events.[27] Among those who left the AFA as a result were Wyatt Kaldenberg – who was appalled by what he described as McNallen's "soft stance on race" and "middle of the road" politics – and the Neo-Nazi Heathen Jost Turner, who was McNallen's brother-in-law.[28] McNallen nevertheless remained close to Turner and his family after the division.[29] As a result of such changes, by the late 1970s there was a clear division between McNallen's AFA, which emphasized religious over racial political aims, and Christensen's Odinist Fellowship, which placed far greater emphasis on the latter.[30]

"One of the hardest-learned lessons from the old AFA... was this: the time has not come for widespread public acceptance of Ásatrú. At one point we exposed a million or so readers to our beliefs in a newspaper article that was published coast-to-coast... Nevertheless, we received exactly two inquiries as a result... We must be content, for now, to grow slowly. We must seek quality rather than quantity."

— Stephen McNallen.[31]

While the autonomous nature of different AFA-affiliated individuals and groups meant that McNallen and his wife Maddy Hunter had little power, they bore the brunt of the responsibility of running the Assembly and organizing its Althings.[23] They were also impacted by a downturn in the Texan economy, with McNallen losing his job as a jail guard.[32] Bankrupt and frustrated, McNallen and the other senior figures in the AFA found that they were unable to organise the group's seventh Althing for 1987.[33] Seeking to ensure that it would continue regardless, McNallen assembled a committee of AFA members, the Southern Heathen Leadership Conference, which issued a document declaring that new membership would be frozen, that AFA responsibilities would be divided more widely, and that McNallen and Hunter should take a vacation from their organizational chores.[34] However, in 1987 McNallen shut down Runestone and dissolved the AFA altogether, relocating to Northern California.[35] However, according to Strmiska and Sigurvinsson, the AFA had "planted seeds that would take strong root".[14] As a replacement for the Assembly, Murray established the Asatru Alliance, which organised the eighth American Althing for Arizona in June 1988.[36]

In 1986-87 McNallen worked as a peace officer in Stephens County Texas sheriff's office jail and Sheila kept books for an oil company.[2][11] in 1986, he and Sheila moved to a semi-deserted mining town in the mountains of California, and from there earned teaching credentials, and for six years he taught science and mathematics in a California middle school, a junior high school teacher in Nevada County, and tried to find meaning in life.[2][37] He embarked on a career in military journalism, writing articles for Soldier of Fortune magazine and traveling to various parts of the world to interview the guerrilla groups active there.[9] He later related that this experience convinced him of the need for ethnonationalism and ethnic separatism across the world.[9] He has worked as a journalist, traveling to Northern India and Burma to report on the military conflicts in the region. He later travelled to Africa and Bosnia to report on the wars in those regions in 1993.[2] Some of his adventures were turned into articles and published by Soldier of Fortune magazine, among others.[2][38][39] From 1987–1996, McNallen was in the California Army National Guard. His unit was called up during the Rodney King riots in Los Angeles and was one of the few Americans to have stood on the famous corner of Hollywood and Vine with a loaded M16 rifle.[39]

Return to Heathenry

In the mid-1990s, McNallen returned to an active involvement in the U.S. Pagan scene, aided by his new partner, Sheila Edlund.[16] They established their own Heathen group, the Calasa Kindred, which they affiliated to Murray's AA.[40] Dissatisfied with what he perceived as the increasing domination of Heathenry by "liberals, affirmative-action Asatrúers, black goðar, and New Agers",[16] he decided to re-establish the AFA in 1994, this time calling it the Asatrú Folk Assembly.[41] This group based its headquarters in Grass Valley,[16] and was structurally very similar to the old AFA,[42] reviving McNallen's Runestone publication, albeit in a yearbook format.[43] The AFA served much the same constituency as the established AA, with religious studies scholar Jeffrey Kaplan believing that its purpose in the Heathen community was therefore largely superfluous.[44] During the 1990s, he also befriended the prominent Heathen Michael Moynihan,[45] later recommending and selling Moynihan's journal Tyr on its website.[46] McNallen and the AFA also appear to have cordial relations with the racial extremist Ron McVan, co-founder of Wotansvolk, publishing some of McVan's writings in Runestone.[47] When in the 1990s, Christensen was arrested for drug smuggling, McNallen teamed up with Murray to form a defense fund for her.[48]

McNallen (left) with Michael "Valgard" Murray (center) and Eric "Hnikar" Wood at the 2000 IAOA Althing

In keeping with his ethnonationalist beliefs, McNallen endorsed a 1993 Declaration of War Against Exploiters of Lakota Spirituality, expressing the opinion that white people should resurrect the religions of their European ancestors rather than adopting the belief systems of Native Americans.[49] In September 1997 he was a signatory to the foundation of the International Asatru/Odinist Alliance (IAOA), a global union of folkish Heathen groups, alongside Murray of the AA and Heimgest of the British Odinic Rite; they were later joined by representatives of the French and German branches of the Odinic Rite, before the union terminated several years later.[50] The alliance convened an international meeting, or Althing, every three years.[51] In 1997, McNallen married Sheila Edlund at the seventeenth Althing, held in Utah; the ceremony was officiated by Murray.[52]> In 1999, the AFA purchased land in the higher Sierra of Northern California, there establishing a space where Heathen kindreds could meet together to practice their religion.[16]

On October 24, 1996, McNallen and the AFA filed suit in U.S. District Court in Portland (Asatru Folk Assembly v. United States) [53] to stop the transfer of the prehistoric remains of the Kennewick Man to local native Americans, under the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA). McNallen argued that modern adherents of Ásatrú have more in common with the prehistoric Kennewick Man than modern native Americans. The court ruled that the human remains were not "Native American" within the meaning of NAGPRA. As a direct result of his portrayal by the media, McNallen no longer advocates public Ásatrú rituals or media presence at Ásatrú ceremonies, leading to the intentional media-stagnation of the growth of Asatru.[54]

McNallen expressed the view that Native American communities wanted to prevent forensic testing of the Kennewick Man's body because they feared that it would prove that he had been Caucasian, thus establishing that there had been a Caucasian presence in the prehistoric Americas.[55] He believed that Caucasians had entered the Americas via the Bering Strait at around the same time as the ancestors of the Native Americans did, but that the Caucasians were subsequently wiped out; he warned that "that can happen to us too" and thus steps should be taken to preserve the existence of the white population of North America.[56] In 2000, the AFA withdrew from its involvement in the Kennewick Man legal case, stating that it had run out of funds to continue.[56]

In the 21st century, the AFA made significant inroads online, establishing a homepage, blog, podcast, online radio, as well as accounts on Facebook and YouTube.[47] Around the same time it began to promote the writings of New Right authors such as Alain de Benoist, selling an English-language translation of the latter's Being a Pagan on its website.[57] In 2009 McNallen was invited to the International Asatru Summer Camp, but this was opposed by many of the groups attending, who argued that he should not be invited because of what they perceived as his racist views; a number of European Heathen groups, such as Norway's Bifrost and the Swedish SAS, threatened to boycott the event as a result of McNallen's invite.[58] In 2011, the AFA sent a contingent to the annual conference of a white nationalist organization, the National Policy Institute, in what some figures close to McNallen revealed was an attempt to recruit members. After this incident was publicized it resulted in accusations of racism being levelled against McNallen and the AFA from various parts of the Pagan blogosphere.[59] In December 2012, McNallen created the Facebook page Green Asatru dedicated to the environmental implications of Asatru and the idea that “Asatru serves Life!”[60] McNallen started the non-profit organization Forever Elephants in June, 2013 to fight ivory poaching in Africa, and created a Facebook page of the same name.[61][62] In 2014, he retired from his possession as a juvenile corrections officer, where he had been employed for the previous five years.[63][64][65]

Race and political ideology

"The spiritual descendants of the Aztecs are looking northward, coveting land which, they have convinced themselves, should be theirs–and, perhaps quite unconsciously, they are moving to conquer it by mass immigration, by language, by cultural influence. A dangerous few want to conquer it by force of arms. But then, they haven't reckoned with Odin and Thor, and Frey and Freya, or the other mighty powers of Asgard and Vanaheim! Nor have they figured, in their calculus of conflict, on the spiritual will of those who follow them."

— Stephen McNallen.[66]

McNallen believes in an integral link that connects one's genetic heritage to one's religion.[44] He has expressed the view that he exhibits the "middle ground on racial issues. On the one hand we were proud of our European heritage, and we actively espoused the interests of European-descended peoples. On the other hand we opposed totalitarianism and racial hatred, convinced that decency and honor required us to treat individuals of all racial groups with respect."[67] He has penned articles on what he fears is the coming extinction of the white race, arguing that in the United States, white people will be largely replaced by Hispanics, with the concomitant demographic shift resulting in a decreased political influence for the country's white population.[68] According to Snook, McNallen's concerns reflect "white American resentment of a perceived loss of status and privilege in modern, multicultural society in particularly divisive political times."[69] She added that a repeated element of his argument, the presentation of white people as victims, was common throughout white supremacist discourse.[66]

McNallen does not consider himself to be a racist.[70] However, in May 2015, the magazine Vice published an article called "How a Thor-Worshipping Religion Turned Racist", accusing McNallen of being a racist who manipulated ancient Norse beliefs "for his own hateful devices".[71] Conversely, many in the extreme racialist wing of Heathenry have accused McNallen of being a race traitor because he has not unequivocally endorsed white supremacist and Neo-Nazi perspectives; they have commented negatively on his "refusal to work for the survival of the Aryan race" and accused him of promoting "cowardly PC politics".[72]

The religious studies scholar Jeffrey Kaplan stated that McNallen's politics "fit comfortably into the right wing of the political spectrum", although added that in the Heathen community McNallen "suddenly becomes very much the man of the centre – and is thus a legitimate target for both sides."[33] The historian of religion Mattias Gardell characterized McNallen as a libertarian.[73] McNallen rejects the descriptor "conservative", expressing the view that there is little in modern Western society worthy of conserving.[74] McNallen envisions a future stateless American confederacy based on ecologically sustainable, decentralized tribal groups.[75] He has also expressed support for all ethnic separatist movements across the world, including that of the Tibetan, Igbo, Karen, and Afrikaner people.[76] This has attracted criticism from the racial extremist wing of the Heathen community, who have claimed that it detracts from the focus on the white or Aryan struggle against other racial groups.[76] According to Katja Lane, co-founder of the extreme racialist Wotansvolk, McNallen is "promoting everything BUT the Aryan cause."[76]

Bibliography

  1. What is Asatru? (1985)
  2. Rituals of Asatru 3 vols. (1992)
  3. Thunder from the North: The Way of the Teutonic Warrior (1993)
  4. A Book of Uncommon Prayers coauthored with Maddy Hutter (1993)
  5. A Runic Inspiration coauthored with Maddy Hutter (1993)
  6. Asatru: The Soul and Initiation (1997)
  7. The Philosophy of Metagenetics, Folkism and Beyond (2006)
  8. Asatru Book of Blotar and Rituals (2009)
  9. Asatru: A Native European Spirituality (2015) ISBN 978-0-9720292-5-4

See also

References

Footnotes

  1. 1 2 3 4 Gardell 2003, p. 259.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 "McNallen Biography - Asatru Folk Assembly". Web.archive.org. Archived from the original on June 30, 2007. Retrieved 2015-08-16.
  3. ↑ Adler 2006, p. 286.
  4. ↑ Kaplan 1996, p. 197; Gardell 2003, p. 259; Adler 2006, p. 286.
  5. ↑ Snook 2015, p. 33.
  6. ↑ Gardell 2003, pp. 259–260.
  7. ↑ Kaplan 1996, p. 200; Gardell 2003, p. 259.
  8. ↑ Kaplan 1996, p. 200.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Gardell 2003, p. 260.
  10. ↑ Stephen A. McNallen, "Three Decades of the Ásatrú Revival in America", in Joshua Buckley & Michael Moynihan (eds.), TYR: Myth - Culture - Tradition, Volume 2 (Atlanta: Ultra, 2003-2004), p. 205.
  11. 1 2 Stephen A. McNallen, "Three Decades of the Ásatrú Revival in America", in Joshua Buckley & Michael Moynihan (eds.), TYR: Myth - Culture - Tradition, Volume 2 (Atlanta: Ultra, 2003-2004), p. 208.
  12. 1 2 Kaplan 1997, p. 80.
  13. ↑ Snook 2015, p. 8.
  14. 1 2 Strmiska & Sigurvinsson 2005, p. 129.
  15. ↑ Kaplan 1997, p. 86.
  16. 1 2 3 4 5 Gardell 2003, p. 261.
  17. ↑ Kaplan 1997, p. 80; Gardell 2003, p. 270; Schnurbein 2016, p. 130.
  18. ↑ Kaplan 1997, p. 81; Gardell 2003, p. 270; Schnurbein 2016, p. 130.
  19. ↑ Kaplan 1997, p. 83.
  20. ↑ Gardell 2003, p. 273.
  21. ↑ Kaplan 1997, pp. 80–81, 83.
  22. ↑ Snook 2015, p. 154.
  23. 1 2 Kaplan 1996, p. 202.
  24. ↑ Kaplan 1996, p. 201.
  25. ↑ Kaplan 1996, pp. 203–204.
  26. ↑ Gardell 2003, pp. 177–178.
  27. ↑ Goodrick-Clarke 2003, p. 262.
  28. ↑ Gardell 2003, pp. 177–178, 182–183; Goodrick-Clarke 2003, p. 262.
  29. ↑ Goodrick-Clarke 2003, p. 265.
  30. ↑ Kaplan 1997, p. 18; Goodrick-Clarke 2003, p. 262.
  31. ↑ Kaplan 1996, p. 205.
  32. ↑ Kaplan 1996, p. 203; Kaplan 1997, pp. 19, 87.
  33. 1 2 Kaplan 1996, p. 204.
  34. ↑ Kaplan 1996, pp. 204–205.
  35. ↑ Kaplan 1996, p. 205; Kaplan 1997, p. 19; Gardell 2003, p. 260.
  36. ↑ Kaplan 1996, p. 206.
  37. ↑ Stephen A. McNallen, "Three Decades of the Ásatrú Revival in America", in Joshua Buckley & Michael Moynihan (eds.), TYR: Myth - Culture - Tradition, Volume 2 (Atlanta: Ultra, 2003-2004), p. 209.
  38. ↑ Natividad, Ivan; Local veteran leads group to save African elephants, The Union of Grass Valley, November 14, 2014
  39. 1 2 Stephen A. McNallen, "Three Decades of the Ásatrú Revival in America", in Joshua Buckley & Michael Moynihan (eds.), TYR: Myth - Culture - Tradition, Volume 2 (Atlanta: Ultra, 2003-2004), p. 210.
  40. ↑ Kaplan 1997, p. 31; Gardell 2003, p. 261.
  41. ↑ Kaplan 1997, pp. 30–31; Gardell 2003, p. 261; Schnurbein 2016, p. 73.
  42. ↑ Kaplan 1997, p. 31.
  43. ↑ Kaplan 1997, p. 31; Schnurbein 2016, p. 83.
  44. 1 2 Kaplan 1997, p. 32.
  45. ↑ Gardell 2003, p. 300.
  46. ↑ Schnurbein 2016, p. 83.
  47. 1 2 Schnurbein 2016, p. 73.
  48. ↑ Gardell 2003, p. 176.
  49. ↑ Gardell 2003, p. 281.
  50. ↑ Gardell 2003, p. 263; Schnurbein 2016, p. 78.
  51. ↑ Gardell 2003, p. 263.
  52. ↑ A Marriage! TOP ASATRU NEWS STORIES OF 1997 (2247 R.E.) ONN- Odin's Nation News
  53. ↑ Malcomson, Scott. "The Color of Bones", The New York Times New York , April 2, 2000. Retrieved on 13 October 2015
  54. ↑ Buckley (2004) p. 217
  55. ↑ Gardell 2003, p. 150.
  56. 1 2 Gardell 2003, p. 282.
  57. ↑ Schnurbein 2016, p. 139.
  58. ↑ Schnurbein 2016, pp. 86, 131.
  59. ↑ Snook 2015, p. 149.
  60. ↑ http://asatrufolkassembly.org/about-stephen-a-mcnallen/
  61. ↑ http://asatrufolkassembly.org/about-stephen-a-mcnallen/
  62. ↑ http://www.theunion.com/news/7886666-113/africa-elephants-mcnallen-community
  63. ↑ Archived June 9, 2015, at the Wayback Machine.
  64. ↑ "Nevada County's Employees of the Year". Yubanet.com. 2006-02-28. Retrieved 2015-08-16.
  65. ↑ Fusshoeller, Pascale (2014-01-28). "Honoring longtime Nevada County employees". Yubanet.com. Retrieved 2015-08-16.
  66. 1 2 Snook 2015, p. 150.
  67. ↑ Schnurbein 2016, pp. 129–130.
  68. ↑ Snook 2015, pp. 149–150.
  69. ↑ Snook 2015, p. 151.
  70. ↑ Gardell 2003, p. 271.
  71. ↑ Paulas, Rick (May 1, 2015). "How a Thor-Worshipping Religion Turned Racist". VICE. Retrieved April 7, 2016.
  72. ↑ Gardell 2003, p. 274.
  73. ↑ Gardell 2003, p. 276.
  74. ↑ Adler 2006, p. 290.
  75. ↑ Gardell 2003, p. 152.
  76. 1 2 3 Gardell 2003, p. 280.

Sources

Adler, Margot (2006) [1979]. Drawing Down the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess-Worshipers and Other Pagans in America (revised ed.). London: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-303819-1. 
Gardell, Matthias (2003). Gods of the Blood: The Pagan Revival and White Separatism. Durham and London: Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-3071-4. 
Goodrick-Clarke, Nicholas (2003). Black Sun: Aryan Cults, Esoteric Nazism, and the Politics of Identity. New York: New York University Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-3155-0. 
Kaplan, Jeffrey (1996). "The Reconstruction of the Ásatrú and Odinist Traditions". In Lewis, James R. Magical Religion and Modern Witchcraft. New York: State University of New York. pp. 193–236. ISBN 978-0-7914-2890-0. 
Kaplan, Jeffrey (1997). Radical Religion in America: Millenarian Movements from the Far Right to the Children of Noah. Syracuse: Syracuse Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-8156-0396-2. 
Schnurbein, Stefanie von (2016). Norse Revival: Transformations of Germanic Neopaganism. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-1608467372. 
Snook, Jennifer (2015). American Heathens: The Politics of Identity in a Pagan Religious Movement. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. ISBN 978-1-4399-1097-9. 
Strmiska, Michael F.; Sigurvinsson, Baldur A. (2005). "Asatru: Nordic Paganism in Iceland and America". In Strmiska, Michael F. Modern Paganism in World Cultures. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. pp. 127–179. ISBN 978-1-85109-608-4. 

Further reading

External links

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