Traffic collision avoidance system

TCAS and IVSI cockpit display (monochrome)
TCAS and EHSI cockpit display (color)

A traffic collision avoidance system or traffic alert and collision avoidance system (both abbreviated as TCAS, and pronounced tee-kas) is an aircraft collision avoidance system designed to reduce the incidence of mid-air collisions between aircraft. It monitors the airspace around an aircraft for other aircraft equipped with a corresponding active transponder, independent of air traffic control, and warns pilots of the presence of other transponder-equipped aircraft which may present a threat of mid-air collision (MAC). It is a type of airborne collision avoidance system mandated by the International Civil Aviation Organization to be fitted to all aircraft with a maximum take-off mass (MTOM) of over 5,700 kg (12,600 lb) or authorized to carry more than 19 passengers. CFR 14, Ch I, part 135 requires that TCAS I is installed for aircraft with 10-30 passengers and TCAS II for aircraft with more than 30 passengers.

ACAS / TCAS is based on secondary surveillance radar (SSR) transponder signals, and operates independently of ground-based equipment to provide advice to the pilot on potential conflicting aircraft.

In modern glass cockpit aircraft, the TCAS display may be integrated in the Navigation Display (ND) or Electronic Horizontal Situation Indicator (EHSI); in older glass cockpit aircraft and those with mechanical instrumentation, such an integrated TCAS display may replace the mechanical Vertical Speed Indicator (which indicates the rate with which the aircraft is descending or climbing).

Impetus for a collision prevention system

Research into collision avoidance systems has been ongoing since at least the 1950s. ICAO and aviation authorities such as the Federal Aviation Administration were spurred into action by the Grand Canyon mid-air collision in 1956.[1][2]

The implementation of TCAS added a safety barrier to help prevent mid-air collisions. However, further study, refinements, training and regulatory measures were still required, because the limitations and misuse of the system still resulted in other incidents and fatal accidents, which include:

Overview

System description

TCAS involves communication between all aircraft equipped with an appropriate transponder (provided the transponder is enabled and set up properly). Each TCAS-equipped aircraft interrogates all other aircraft in a determined range about their position (via the 1.03 GHz radio frequency), and all other aircraft reply to other interrogations (via 1.09 GHz). This interrogation-and-response cycle may occur several times per second.[1][2]

The TCAS system builds a three dimensional map of aircraft in the airspace, incorporating their range (garnered from the interrogation and response round trip time), altitude (as reported by the interrogated aircraft), and bearing (by the directional antenna from the response). Then, by extrapolating current range and altitude difference to anticipated future values, it determines if a potential collision threat exists.

TCAS and its variants are only able to interact with aircraft that have a correctly operating mode C or mode S transponder. A unique 24-bit identifier is assigned to each aircraft that has a mode S transponder.

The next step beyond identifying potential collisions is automatically negotiating a mutual avoidance manoeuver (currently, manoeuvers are restricted to changes in altitude and modification of climb/sink rates) between the two (or more) conflicting aircraft. These avoidance manoeuvers are communicated to the flight crew by a cockpit display and by synthesized voice instructions.[1][2]

A protected volume of airspace surrounds each TCAS equipped aircraft. The size of the protected volume depends on the altitude, speed, and heading of the aircraft involved in the encounter. The illustration below gives an example of a typical TCAS protection volume.

System components

A TCAS installation consists of the following components:[1][2]

TCAS computer unit
Performs airspace surveillance, intruder tracking, its own aircraft altitude tracking, threat detection, resolution advisory (RA) manoeuvre determination and selection, and generation of advisories. The TCAS Processor uses pressure altitude, radar altitude, and discrete aircraft status inputs from its own aircraft to control the collision avoidance logic parameters that determine the protection volume around the TCAS aircraft.
Antennas
The antennas used by TCAS II include a directional antenna that is mounted on the top of the aircraft and either an omnidirectional or a directional antenna mounted on the bottom of the aircraft. Most installations use the optional directional antenna on the bottom of the aircraft. In addition to the two TCAS antennas, two antennas are also required for the Mode S transponder. One antenna is mounted on the top of the aircraft while the other is mounted on the bottom. These antennas enable the Mode S transponder to receive interrogations at 1030 MHz and reply to the received interrogations at 1090 MHz.
Cockpit presentation
The TCAS interface with the pilots is provided by two displays: the traffic display and the RA display. These two displays can be implemented in a number of ways, including displays that incorporate both displays into a single, physical unit. Regardless of the implementation, the information displayed is identical. The standards for both the traffic display and the RA display are defined in DO-185A.[3]

Operation

The following section describes the TCAS operation based on TCAS II, since this is the version that has been adopted as an international standard (ACAS II) by ICAO and aviation authorities worldwide.[1][2]

Operation modes

TCAS II can be currently operated in the following modes:[1][2]

Stand-by
Power is applied to the TCAS Processor and the mode S transponder, but TCAS does not issue any interrogations and the transponder will reply to only discrete interrogations.
Transponder
The mode S transponder is fully operational and will reply to all appropriate ground and TCAS interrogations. TCAS remains in stand-by.
Traffic advisories only
The mode S transponder is fully operational. TCAS will operate normally and issue the appropriate interrogations and perform all tracking functions. However, TCAS will only issue traffic advisories (TA), and the resolution advisories (RA) will be inhibited.
Automatic (traffic/resolution advisories)
The mode S transponder is fully operational. TCAS will operate normally and issue the appropriate interrogations and perform all tracking functions. TCAS will issue traffic advisories (TA) and resolution advisories (RA), when appropriate.

TCAS works in a coordinated manner, so when an RA is issued to conflicting aircraft, a required action (i.e., Climb. Climb.) has to be immediately performed by one of the aircraft, while the other one receives a similar RA in the opposite direction (i.e., Descend. Descend.).

Alerts

TCAS II typical envelope

TCAS II issues the following types of aural annunciations:

When a TA is issued, pilots are instructed to initiate a visual search for the traffic causing the TA. If the traffic is visually acquired, pilots are instructed to maintain visual separation from the traffic. Training programs also indicate that no horizontal maneuvers are to be made based solely on information shown on the traffic display. Slight adjustments in vertical speed while climbing or descending, or slight adjustments in airspeed while still complying with the ATC clearance are acceptable.[4]

When an RA is issued, pilots are expected to respond immediately to the RA unless doing so would jeopardize the safe operation of the flight. This means that aircraft will at times have to manoeuver contrary to ATC instructions or disregard ATC instructions. In these cases, the controller is no longer responsible for separation of the aircraft involved in the RA until the conflict is terminated.

On the other hand, ATC can potentially interfere with a pilot's response to RAs. If a conflicting ATC instruction coincides with an RA, a pilot may assume that ATC is fully aware of the situation and is providing the better resolution. But in reality, ATC is not aware of the RA until the RA is reported by the pilot. Once the RA is reported by the pilot, ATC is required not to attempt to modify the flight path of the aircraft involved in the encounter. Hence, the pilot is expected to "follow the RA" but in practice this does not always happen.

Some countries have implemented "RA downlink" which provides air traffic controllers with information about RAs posted in the cockpit. Currently, there are no ICAO provisions concerning the use of RA downlink by air traffic controllers.

The following points receive emphasis during pilot training:

Types of traffic and resolution advisories

Type Text Meaning Required action[1][2][5]
TA Traffic; traffic. Intruder near both horizontally and vertically. Attempt visual contact, and be prepared to manoeuvre if an RA occurs.
RA Climb; climb. Intruder will pass below Begin climbing at 1500–2000 ft/min
RA Descend. Descend. Intruder will pass above. Begin descending at 1500–2000 ft/min
RA Increase climb. Intruder will pass just below Climb at 2500 – 3000 ft/min.
RA Increase descent. Intruder will pass just above. Descend at 2500 – 3000 ft/min.
RA Reduce climb. Intruder is probably well below. Climb at a slower rate.
RA Reduce descent. Intruder is probably well above. Descend at a slower rate.
RA Climb; climb now. Intruder that was passing above, will now pass below. Change from a descent to a climb.
RA Descend; descend now. Intruder that was passing below, will now pass above. Change from a climb to a descent.
RA Maintain vertical speed; maintain. Intruder will be avoided if vertical rate is maintained. Maintain current vertical rate.
RA Level off, level off. Intruder considerably away, or weakening of initial RA. Begin to level off.
RA Monitor vertical speed. Intruder ahead in level flight, above or below. Remain in level flight.
RA Crossing. Passing through the intruder's level. Usually added to any other RA. Proceed according to the associated RA.
CC Clear of conflict. Intruder is no longer a threat. Return promptly to previous ATC clearance.

Pilot/aircrew interaction during a TCAS event

TCAS event interaction[4]
Aircrew Controller
Traffic advisory (TA)
Shall not manoeuvre their aircraft in response to traffic advisories (TAs) only Remains responsible for ATC separation
Should prepare for appropriate action if an RA occurs; but as far as practicable, pilots should not request traffic information If requested by the aircrew, shall give traffic information
Resolution advisory (RA)
Shall respond immediately and manoeuvre as indicated, unless doing so would jeopardize the safety of the aircraft Shall not attempt to modify the flight path of an aircraft responding to an RA
Shall follow the RA even if there is a conflict between the RA and an Air Traffic Control (ATC) instruction to manoeuvre Shall not issue any clearance or instruction to the aircraft involved until the pilot reports returning to the terms of the assigned ATC clearance or instruction
Shall never manoeuvre in the opposite sense to an RA, nor maintain a vertical rate in the opposite sense to an RA Shall acknowledge the report by using the phrase "ROGER"
When deviating from an air traffic control instruction or clearance in response to any RA, shall:
  • As soon as permitted by flight crew workload, notify the appropriate ATC unit of the deviation.
  • Immediately inform ATC when they are unable to comply with a clearance or instruction that conflicts with an RA.
 If requested by the aircrew, shall give traffic information
Shall promptly comply with any subsequent RAs issued by TCAS Ceases to be responsible for providing separation between that aircraft and any other aircraft affected as a direct consequence of the manoeuvre induced by the RA, as long as the pilot reported the TCAS RA.
Shall limit the alterations of the flight path to the minimum extent necessary to comply with the resolution advisories
Clear of conflict (CC)
Shall promptly return to the terms of the ATC instruction or clearance when the conflict is resolved Shall resume responsibility for providing separation for all the affected aircraft when he acknowledges:
  • A report from the pilot that the aircraft is resuming the assigned ATC clearance or instruction and issues an alternative clearance or instruction which is acknowledged by the pilot
  • A report from the pilot that the aircraft has resumed the assigned ATC clearance or instruction
Shall notify ATC after initiating a return to or resuming the current clearance

Safety aspects

Safety studies on TCAS estimate that the system improves safety in the airspace by a factor of between 3 and 5.[6]

However, it is well understood that part of the remaining risk is that TCAS may induce midair collisions: "In particular, it is dependent on the accuracy of the threat aircraft’s reported altitude and on the expectation that the threat aircraft will not make an abrupt maneuver that defeats the TCAS Resolution Advisory (RA). The safety study also shows that TCAS II will induce some critical near midair collisions..." (See page 7 of Introduction to TCAS II Version 7 and 7.1 (PDF) in external links below).[1][2]

One potential problem with TCAS II is the possibility that a recommended avoidance maneuver might direct the flight crew to descend toward terrain below a safe altitude. Recent requirements for incorporation of ground proximity mitigate this risk. Ground proximity warning alerts have priority in the cockpit over TCAS alerts.

Some pilots have been unsure how to act when their aircraft was requested to climb whilst flying at their maximum altitude. The accepted procedure is to follow the climb RA as best as possible, temporarily trading speed for height. The climb RA should quickly finish. In the event of a stall warning, the stall warning would take priority.

Both cases have been already addressed by Version 7.0 of TCAS II and are currently handled by a corrective RA together with a visual indication of a green arc in the IVSI display to indicate the safe range for the climb or descent rate. However, it has been found that in some cases these indications could lead to a dangerous situation for the involved aircraft. For example, if a TCAS event occurs when two aircraft are descending one over the other for landing, the aircraft at the lower altitude will first receive a "Descend, descend" RA, and when reaching an extreme low altitude, this will change to a "Adjust Vertical Speed, Adjust" RA, together with a green arc indication directing the pilot to level off the aircraft. This could place the aircraft dangerously into the path of the intruder above, who is descending to land. A change proposal has been issued to correct this problem.[7]

Relationship to automatic dependent surveillance-broadcast (ADS-B)

Automatic dependent surveillance-broadcast (ADS-B) messages are transmitted from aircraft equipped with suitable transponders, containing information such as identity, location, and velocity. The signals are broadcast on the 1090 MHz radio frequency. ADS-B messages are also carried on a Universal Access Transceiver (UAT) in the 978 MHz band.[8]

TCAS equipment which is capable of processing ADS-B messages may use this information to enhance the performance of TCAS, using techniques known as "hybrid surveillance". As currently implemented, hybrid surveillance uses reception of ADS-B messages from an aircraft to reduce the rate at which the TCAS equipment interrogates that aircraft. This reduction in interrogations reduces the use of the 1030/1090 MHz radio channel, and will over time extend the operationally useful life of TCAS technology. The ADS-B messages will also allow low cost (for aircraft) technology to provide real time traffic in the cockpit for small aircraft.[9] Currently UAT based traffic uplinks are provided in Alaska and in regions of the East coast of the USA.

Hybrid surveillance does not include the use any of the aircraft flight information in the TCAS conflict detection algorithms; ADS-B is used only to identify aircraft that can safely be interrogated at a lower rate.

In the future, prediction capabilities may be improved by using the state vector information present in ADS-B messages. Also, since ADS-B messages can be received at greater range than TCAS normally operates, aircraft can be acquired earlier by the TCAS tracking algorithms.

The identity information present in ADS-B messages can be used to label other aircraft on the cockpit display (where present), painting a picture similar to what an air traffic controller would see and improving situational awareness.[10][11]

Drawbacks to TCAS and ADS-B

The major demonstrated problem of the ADS-B protocol integration is this added verbosity of the extra information transmitted, which is considered unnecessary for collision avoidance purposes. The more data transmitted from one aircraft in accordance with the system design, the lesser the number of aircraft that can participate in the system, due to the fixed and limited channel data bandwidth (1 megabit/second with the 26/64 data bits to packet length bit capacity of the Mode S downlink data format packet). For every Mode S message of 64 bits, the overhead demands 8 for clock sync at the receiver and Mode S packet discovery, 6 for type of Mode S packet, 24 for who it came from. Since that leaves only 26 for information, multiple packets must be used to convey a single message. The ADS-B "fix" proposal is to go to a 128 bit packet, which is not an accepted international standard.[8] Either approach increases channel traffic above the level sustainable for environments such as the Los Angeles Basin.

Versions

Passive

Collision Avoidance systems which rely on transponder replies triggered by ground and airborne systems are considered passive. Ground and airborne interrogators query nearby transponders for mode C altitude information, which can be monitored by third-party systems for traffic information. Passive systems display traffic similar to TCAS, however generally have a range of less than 7 nautical miles (13 km).

TCAS I

TCAS I is a cheaper but less capable than the modern TCAS II system introduced for general aviation use after the FAA mandate for TCAS II in air transport aircraft. TCAS I systems are able to monitor the traffic situation around a plane (to a range of about 40 miles) and offer information on the approximate bearing and altitude of other aircraft. It can also generate collision warnings in the form of a "Traffic Advisory" (TA). The TA warns the pilot that another aircraft is in near vicinity, announcing "Traffic, traffic", but does not offer any suggested remedy; it is up to the pilot to decide what to do, usually with the assistance of Air Traffic Control. When a threat has passed, the system announces "Clear of conflict".[12]

TCAS II

TCAS II is the first system that was introduced in 1989 and is the current generation of instrument warning TCAS, used in the majority of commercial aviation aircraft (see table below). A USAirways 737 was the first aircraft certified with the AlliedBendix (now Honeywell) TCAS II system. It offers all the benefits of TCAS I, but will also offer the pilot direct, vocalized instructions to avoid danger, known as a "Resolution Advisory" (RA). The suggestive action may be "corrective", suggesting the pilot change vertical speed by announcing, "Descend, descend", "Climb, climb" or "Adjust Vertical Speed Adjust" (meaning reduce vertical speed). By contrast a "preventive" RA may be issued which simply warns the pilots not to deviate from their present vertical speed, announcing, "Monitor vertical speed" or "Maintain vertical speed, Maintain". TCAS II systems coordinate their resolution advisories before issuing commands to the pilots, so that if one aircraft is instructed to descend, the other will typically be told to climb — maximising the separation between the two aircraft.[1][2]

As of 2006, the only implementation that meets the ACAS II standards set by ICAO[13] was Version 7.0 of TCAS II,[1] produced by three avionics manufacturers: Rockwell Collins, Honeywell, and ACSS (Aviation Communication & Surveillance Systems; an L-3 Communications and Thales Avionics company).

After the Überlingen mid-air collision (July 1, 2002), studies have been made to improve TCAS II capabilities. Following extensive Eurocontrol input and pressure, a revised TCAS II Minimum Operational Performance Standards (MOPS) document has been jointly developed by RTCA (Special Committee SC-147[14]) and EUROCAE. As a result, by 2008 the standards for Version 7.1 of TCAS II have been issued[15] and published as RTCA DO-185B[3] (June 2008) and EUROCAE ED-143 (September 2008).

TCAS II Version 7.1[2] will be able to issue RA reversals in coordinated encounters, in case one of the aircraft doesn't follow the original RA instructions (Change proposal CP112E).[16] Other changes in this version are the replacement of the ambiguous "Adjust Vertical Speed, Adjust" RA with the "Level off, Level off" RA, to prevent improper response by the pilots (Change proposal CP115).;[17] and the improved handling of corrective/preventive annunciation and removal of green arc display when a positive RA weakens solely due to an extreme low or high altitude condition (1000 feet AGL or below, or near the aircraft top ceiling) to prevent incorrect and possibly dangerous guidance to the pilot (Change proposal CP116).[7][18]

Studies conducted for Eurocontrol, using recently recorded operational data, indicate that currently the probability of a mid-air collision in European airspace is 2.7 x 10−8 which equates to one in every 3 years. When TCAS II Version 7.1 is implemented, that probability will be reduced by a factor of 4.[18]

Although ACAS III is mentioned as a future system in ICAO Annex 10, ACAS III is unlikely to materialize due to difficulties the current surveillance systems have with horizontal tracking. Currently, research is being conducted to develop a future collision avoidance system (under the working name of ACAS X).[19]

TCAS III

Originally designated TCAS II Enhanced, TCAS III was envisioned as an expansion of the TCAS II concept to include horizontal resolution advisory capability. TCAS III was the "next generation" of collision avoidance technology which underwent development by aviation companies such as Honeywell. TCAS III incorporated technical upgrades to the TCAS II system, and had the capability to offer traffic advisories and resolve traffic conflicts using horizontal as well as vertical manouevring directives to pilots. For instance, in a head-on situation, one aircraft might be directed, "turn right, climb" while the other would be directed "turn right, descend." This would act to further increase the total separation between aircraft, in both horizontal and vertical aspects. Horizontal directives would be useful in a conflict between two aircraft close to the ground where there may be little if any vertical maneuvering space.[20]

TCAS III attempts to use the TCAS directional antenna to assign a bearing to other aircraft, and thus be able to generate a horizontal maneuver (e.g. turn left or right). However, it was judged by the industry to be unfeasible due to limitations in the accuracy of the TCAS directional antennas. The directional antennas were judged not to be accurate enough to generate an accurate horizontal-plane position, and thus an accurate horizontal resolution. By 1995, years of testing and analysis determined that the concept was unworkable using available surveillance technology (due to the inadequacy of horizontal position information), and that horizontal RAs were unlikely to be invoked in most encounter geometries. Hence, all work on TCAS III was suspended and there are no plans for its implementation. The concept has later evolved and been replaced by TCAS IV.[21][22]

TCAS IV

TCAS IV uses additional information encoded by the target aircraft in the Mode S transponder reply (i.e. target encodes its own position into the transponder signal) to generate a horizontal resolution to an RA. In addition, some reliable source of position (such as Inertial Navigation System or GPS) is needed on the target aircraft in order for it to be encoded.

TCAS IV has replaced the TCAS III concept by the mid 1990s. One of the results of TCAS III experience has been that the directional antenna used by the TCAS processor to assign a bearing to a received transponder reply is not accurate enough to generate an accurate horizontal position, and thus a safe horizontal resolution. TCAS IV uses additional position information encoded on an air-to-air data link to generate the bearing information, so the accuracy of the directional antenna would not be a factor.

TCAS IV development continued for some years, but the appearance of new trends in data link such as Automatic Dependent Surveillance – Broadcast (ADS-B) have pointed out a need to re-evaluate whether a data link system dedicated to collision avoidance such as TCAS IV should be incorporated into a more generic system of air-to-air data link for additional applications. As a result of these issues, the TCAS IV concept was abandoned as ADS-B development started.[22][23]

Current implementation

Although the system occasionally suffers from false alarms, pilots are now under strict instructions to regard all TCAS messages as genuine alerts demanding an immediate, high-priority response. Only Windshear Detection and GPWS alerts and warnings have higher priority than the TCAS. The FAA , EASA and most other countries' authorities' rules state that in the case of a conflict between TCAS RA and air traffic control (ATC) instructions, the TCAS RA always takes precedence (this is mainly because of the TCAS-RA inherently possessing a more current and comprehensive picture of the situation than air traffic controllers, whose radar/transponder updates usually happen at a much slower rate than the TCAS interrogations).[1][2] If one aircraft follows a TCAS RA and the other follows conflicting ATC instructions, a collision can occur, such as the July 1, 2002 Überlingen disaster. In this mid-air collision, both airplanes were fitted with TCAS II Version 7.0 systems which functioned properly, but one obeyed the TCAS advisory while the other ignored the TCAS and obeyed the controller; both aircraft descended into a fatal collision.[24]

This accident could have been prevented if TCAS was able to reverse the original RA for one of the aircraft when it detects that the crew of the other one is not following their original TCAS RA, but conflicting ATC instructions instead. This is one of the features that will be implemented within Version 7.1 of TCAS II.[15][25][26]

Implementation of TCAS II Version 7.1 has been originally planned to start between 2009 and 2011 by retrofitting and forward fitting all the TCAS II equipped aircraft, with the goal that by 2014 the version 7.0 will be completely phased out and replaced by version 7.1. The FAA and EASA have already published the TCAS II Version 7.1 Technical Standard Order (TSO-C119c[27] and ETSO-C119c,[28] respectively) effective since 2009, based on the RTCA DO-185B[3] and EUROCAE ED-143 standards. On 25 September 2009 FAA issued Advisory Circular AC 20-151A[29] providing guidance for obtaining airworthiness approval for TCAS II systems, including the new version 7.1. On 5 October 2009 the Association of European Airlines (AEA) published a Position Paper[30] showing the need to mandate TCAS II Version 7.1 on all aircraft as a matter of priority. On 25 March 2010 the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) published Notice of Proposed Amendment (NPA) No. 2010-03 pertaining to the introduction of ACAS II software version 7.1.[31] On 14 September 2010 EASA published the Comment Response Document (CRD) to the above-mentioned NPA.[32] Separately, a proposal has been made to amend the ICAO standard to require TCAS II Version 7.1 for compliance with ACAS II SARPs.

ICAO has circulated an amendment for formal member state agreement which recommends TCAS II Change 7.1 adoption by 1 January 2014 for forward fit and 1 January 2017 for retrofit. Following the feedback and comments from airline operators, EASA has proposed the following dates for the TCAS II Version 7.1 mandate in European airspace: forward fit (for new aircraft) 1 March 2012, retrofit (for existing aircraft) 1 December 2015. These dates are proposed dates, subject to further regulatory processes, and are not final until the Implementing Rule has been published.[18]

Among the system manufacturers, by February 2010 ACSS[33] certified Change 7.1 for their TCAS 2000 and Legacy TCAS II systems,[34] and is currently offering Change 7.1 upgrade for their customers.[35] By June 2010 Honeywell published a white paper with their proposed solutions for TCAS II Version 7.1.[36] Rockwell Collins currently announces that their TCAS-94, TCAS-4000 and TSS-4100 TCAS II compliant systems are software upgradeable to Change 7.1 when available.[37]

Current limitations

While the safety benefits of current TCAS implementations are self-evident, the full technical and operational potential of TCAS is not fully exploited due to limitations in current implementations (most of which will need to be addressed in order to further facilitate the design and implementation of Free flight) and NextGen:

To overcome some of these limitations, the FAA is developing a new collision avoidance logic based on dynamic programming.

In response to a series of midair collisions involving commercial airliners, Lincoln Laboratory was directed by the Federal Aviation Administration in the 1970s to participate in the development of an onboard collision avoidance system. In its current manifestation, the Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System is mandated worldwide on all large aircraft and has significantly improved the safety of air travel, but major changes to the airspace planned over the coming years will require substantial modification to the system.[40]

A set of new systems called ACAS X[41] will use this new logic:

The first FAA-scheduled industry was held in October 2011 in Washington DC, to brief avionics manufacturers on the development plans for "ACAS X" – including flight demonstrations scheduled for fiscal 2013. The FAA says its work "will be foundational to the development of minimum operational performance standards" for ACAS X by standards developer RTCA.[42]

It is estimated that, if ACAS X will be further developed and certified, ACAS X will not be commercially available before mid 2020s. And it is said to be unclear at this stage whether ACAS X would provide any horizontal resolutions.[43]

Regulatory situation around the world

Jurisdiction (Agency) Classification of aircraft TCAS mode Date of mandate
India (DGCA) Aeroplane having a maximum certified passenger seating configuration of more than 30 seats or a maximum payload capacity of more than 3 tons[44] TCAS II 31 December 1998
USA (FAA) All commercial turbine-powered transport aircraft with more than 30 passenger seats (or MTOM above 33,000 lb or 15,000 kg) TCAS II 1 January 1993
Europe (EASA) All civil turbine-powered transport aircraft with more than 30 passenger seats (or MTOM above 15,000 kg)[45] TCAS II 1 January 2000
Europe (EASA) All civil turbine powered transport aircraft with more than 19 passenger seats (or MTOM above 5,700 kg)[45] ACAS II (Effectively TCAS II Version 7.1) 1 March 2012
Australia (CASA) All commercial turbine powered transport aircraft with more than 30 passenger seats (or MTOM above 15,000 kg)[46] TCAS II 1 January 2000
Hong Kong (Civil Aviation Department) All aircraft in Hong Kong with more than 9 passenger seats (or MTOM greater than 5,700 kg)[47] TCAS II Version 7.0 1 January 2000
Brazil (National Civil Aviation Agency) All transport category aircraft with more than 30 passenger seats TCAS II Version 7.0 1 January 2008
Peru (Dirección General de Aeronáutica Civil) All civil turbine powered transport aircraft with more than 19 passenger seats (or MTOM above 5,700 kg)[48][49] ACAS II (Effectively TCAS II Version 7.0) 1 January 2005
Argentina (ANAC) All civil turbine powered transport aircraft with more than 19 passenger seats (or MTOM above 5,700 kg)[50] ACAS II (Effectively TCAS II Version 7.0) 1 December 2014

See also

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Introduction to TCAS II Version 7
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Introduction to TCAS II Version 7.1
  3. 1 2 3 FAA DO-185 Materials and RTCA SC-147 Activities
  4. 1 2 3 ICAO Document 9863 - Chapter 6
  5. ↑ Honeywell TCAS System User Manual
  6. ↑ ACAS Programme Work Package 1
  7. 1 2 Change proposal CP116
  8. 1 2 ADS-B System Description for the UAT
  9. ↑ "TCAS 7.1 | ADSB Straight Talk". Duncanaviation.aero. 2012-03-01. Retrieved 2013-09-22.
  10. ↑ Potential cooperation between TCAS and ASAS
  11. ↑ Terms of Reference - Future ADS-B / TCAS Relationships
  12. ↑ FAA TCAS Home Page
  13. ↑ ACAS II ICAO Provisions
  14. ↑ SC-147 Terms of Reference - Revision 9
  15. 1 2 Decision criteria for regulatory measures on TCAS II version 7.1
  16. ↑ Change proposal CP112E
  17. ↑ Change proposal CP115
  18. 1 2 3 EUROCONTROL - TCAS II Version 7.1
  19. ↑ "EUROCONTROL - ACAS II Overview and Principles". Eurocontrol.int. Retrieved 2013-09-22.
  20. ↑ Project Report ATC-231
  21. ↑ Skybrary ACAS
  22. 1 2 TCAS and Transponders
  23. ↑ FAA Engineering Development Services Group - TCAS Support
  24. ↑ BFU Investigation Report AX001-1-2/02
  25. ↑ TCAS Safety Study - Collision risk due to TCAS safety issues
  26. ↑ TCAS Safety Study - Collision risk due to TCAS safety issues (Presentation)
  27. ↑ FAA Technical Standard Order TSO-C119c
  28. ↑ European Technical Standard Order ETSO-C119c
  29. ↑ FAA Advisory Circular AC 20-151A - Airworthiness Approval of Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance Systems (TCAS II), Versions 7.0 & 7.1 and Associated Mode S Transponders
  30. ↑ AEA Position Paper on TCAS Version 7.1 implementation
  31. ↑ EASA Deviation Request #56
  32. ↑ Comment Response Document (CRD) to NPA 2010-03
  33. ↑ ACSS Change 7.1 for TCAS II
  34. ↑ Press Release - ACSS Certifies Change 7.1 for TCAS 2000 and Legacy TCAS II
  35. ↑ ACSS Change 7.1 for TCAS II flyer
  36. ↑ Honeywell Solutions for TCAS II Change 7.1
  37. ↑ Rockwell Collins Traffic surveillance products
  38. 1 2 3 4 "TCASII-Genie Out of the Bottle?". Asrs.arc.nasa.gov. 1992-07-29. Retrieved 2013-09-22.
  39. ↑ "New Zealand B747 Close Midair Encounter — Civil Aviation Forum". Airliners.net. Retrieved 2013-09-22. C1 control character in |title= at position 41 (help)
  40. ↑ http://www.ll.mit.edu/publications/journal/pdf/vol19_no1/19_1_1_Kochenderfer.pdf
  41. ↑ "99-Airborne Collision Avoidance System (ACAS X) - 12302 (Archived) - Federal Business Opportunities: Opportunities". Fbo.gov. 2012-09-10. Retrieved 2013-09-22.
  42. ↑ "FAA Developing Next-Generation TCAS". Aviationweek.com. 2012-09-12. Retrieved 2013-09-22.
  43. ↑ "EUROCONTROL - Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)". Eurocontrol.int. Retrieved 2013-09-22.
  44. ↑ "Air Transport Circular No". Dgca.nic.in. 1998-12-31. Retrieved 2013-09-22.
  45. 1 2 European ACAS II Mandate
  46. ↑ Explanatory Statement regarding TCAS for CASA(PDF)
  47. ↑ Airworthiness Notice No. 24 (PDF)
  48. ↑ DGAC Perú - RAP 121 - Subpart K (PDF)
  49. ↑ DGAC Perú - RAP 135 - Subpart C (PDF)
  50. ↑ ANAC - Argentine Civil Aviation Regulations

External links

This article is issued from Wikipedia - version of the Friday, May 06, 2016. The text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share Alike but additional terms may apply for the media files.