Turbinellus floccosus

Turbinellus floccosus
Found in Mount Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Basidiomycota
Class: Agaricomycetes
Order: Gomphales
Family: Gomphaceae
Genus: Turbinellus
Species: T. floccosus
Binomial name
Turbinellus floccosus
(Schwein.) Earle ex Giachini & Castellano (2011)
Synonyms
Turbinellus floccosus
View the Mycomorphbox template that generates the following list

Mycological characteristics

ridges on hymenium
cap is infundibuliform
hymenium is decurrent
stipe is bare
spore print is brown
ecology is mycorrhizal
edibility: poisonous

Turbinellus floccosus, sometimes known as the shaggy-, scaly-, or woolly chanterelle, is a cantharelloid mushroom of the family Gomphaceae native to Asia and North America. It was known as Gomphus floccosus until 2011, when it was found to be only distantly related to the genus's type species G. clavatus. It was consequently transferred from Gomphus to Turbinellus. The orange-capped vase- or trumpet-shaped fruiting structures may reach 30 cm (12 in) high and 30 cm (12 in) wide. The lower surface, the hymenium, is covered in wrinkles and ridges rather than gills or pores, and is pale buff or yellowish to whitish.

T. floccosus forms ectomycorrhizal relationships with various types of conifer; fruit bodies may be found in coniferous woodlands across Eastern Asia, from North Korea to Pakistan, and in North America, more frequently in the west, in late summer and autumn. Though mild-tasting, they cause gastrointestinal symptoms of nausea, vomiting and diarrhea when consumed.

Taxonomy

This species was first described as Cantherellus floccosus in 1834 by American mycologist Lewis David de Schweinitz, who reported it growing in beech woods in Mount Pocono, Pennsylvania.[1] Its specific epithet is derived from the Latin floccus, meaning "flock of wool".[2] In 1839, Miles Joseph Berkeley described a specimen from Canada as Cantharellus canadensis from a manuscript by Johann Friedrich Klotzsch, noting its affinity to C. clavatus.[3] A large specimen collected in Maine by Charles James Sprague was described as Cantharellus princeps in 1859 by Berkeley and Moses Ashley Curtis.[4]

In 1891, German botanist Otto Kuntze published Revisio Generum Plantarum, his response to what he perceived as a lack of method in existing nomenclatural practice.[5] Three taxa received new names: Kuntze coined the genus Trombetta, which incorporated Cantharellus canadensis (as Trombetta canadensis), while C. floccosus and C. princeps became Merulius floccosus and M. princeps respectively.[6] However, Kuntze's revisionary program was not accepted by the majority of botanists.[5]

Franklin Sumner Earle made C. floccosus the type species of the new genus Turbinellus in 1909, remarking that "They constitute a striking and well-marked genus which seems to have more in common with the club-shaped species of Craterellus than with the following genus where they have always been placed."[7] However this was not widely taken up. Earle's new combination was not published validly according to nomenclatural rules.[8]

In 1945 it was transferred to Gomphus by Rolf Singer.[9] The generic name is derived from the Ancient Greek γομφος, gomphos, meaning "plug" or "large wedge-shaped nail".[10] Alex H. Smith treated the members of Gomphus as two sections—Gomphus and Excavatus—within Cantharellus in his 1947 review of chanterelles in western North America, as he felt there were no consistent characteristics that distinguished the genera. The shaggy chanterelle was placed in the latter section due to its scaly cap, lack of clamp connections and rusty-colored spores.[11] Roger Heim classified it in the genus Nevrophyllum, before E. J. H. Corner returned it to Gomphus in 1966.[12]

The genus Gomphus, along with several others in the Gomphaceae, was reorganized in the 2010s after molecular analysis confirmed that the older morphology-based classification did not accurately represent phylogenetic relationships.[13][12][14] Thus the genus Turbinellus was resurrected and the taxon became Turbinellus floccosus.[12]

T. floccosus has been given the common names of scaly vase chanterelle,[15] scaly chanterelle, woolly chanterelle,[16] or shaggy chanterelle,[17] though it is more closely related to stinkhorns than true chanterelles.[18] In Nepal, in the Sherpa language, it is known as diyo chyau or khumbhe chyau, from the words diyo, meaning "oil lamp" and chyau, meaning "mushroom", as the fruit bodies have a shape similar to the local oil lamps.[19] In Mexico, it is known as corneta or trompeta, or by the indigenous words Tlapitzal, tlapitzananácatl or oyamelnanácatl in Tlaxcala.[20]

Description

Oval spores in Melzer's solution, seen through a microscope

Adult fruit bodies are initially cylindrical, maturing to trumpet- or vase-shaped and reaching up to 30 cm (12 in) high and up to 30 cm (12 in) across.[21] There is no clear demarcation between the cap and stipe.[11] The stipe itself can be up to 15 cm (6 in) tall and 6 cm (2.4 in) wide, though it tapers to a narrower base. It is solid in younger specimens, though is often hollowed out by insect larvae in older.[21] At higher elevations, two or three fruit bodies may arise from one stipe. Colored various shades of reddish- to yellowish-orange, the cap surface is broken into scales, with the spaces between more yellow and the scales themselves more orange. The most colorful specimens occur in warm humid weather.[11] Older specimens are often paler.[16]

The white flesh is fibrous and thick, though thins out in old specimens.[11] Somewhat brittle, it can sometimes turn brown when cut or bruised. The smell has been reported as indistinct or "earthy and sweet", and the taste "sweet and sour".[21] The spore-bearing undersurface is irregularly folded, forked or ridged rather than gilled and is pale buff or yellowish to whitish in color.[22] These ridges are up to 4 mm high.[21] The surface is decurrently attached to the stipe, though irregularly so.[11] The spore print is brownish, the spores ellipsoid with dimensions of 12.4–16.8 x 5.8–7.3 μm.[22] The spore surface is roughened with ornamentations that can be made visible under the microscope by staining with methyl blue.[23]

The fruit bodies can last for some considerable time, growing slowly over a month. Mushrooms in subalpine and alpine areas are typically heavy-set with a short stipe, their growth slower in the cold climate. This form is slower growing, and is seen at lower altitudes in colder seasons. Smith gave this the name forma rainierensis. Conversely, mushrooms at low altitudes, such as in the redwood forests, can grow and expand rapidly with large caps that have prominent scales. Smith described a paler form with a solid stipe from the Sierra Nevada as forma wilsonii.[11] R. H. Petersen described an olive-capped form that is otherwise identical the the typical form.[24] These forms are not recognised as distinct.[8]

Similar species

Lookalikes
Turbinellus fujisanensis
Turbinellus kauffmanii

The related Turbinellus kauffmanii, found in western North America, is similar-looking but has a pale brown cap.[18] Younger specimens of the latter species also have a pungent smell.[11] Turbinellus fujisanensis, found in Japan, is another lookalike that has smaller spores than T. floccosus.[25] The fruit bodies of Gomphus bonarii, found in northwestern North America, are typically more yellowish to brownish compared to T. floccosus, and they tend to fruit in clumps.[26]

Distribution and habitat

The fungus appears to form ectomycorrhizal relationships with various conifers including Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), fir (Abies) species such as momi fir (Abies firma), European silver fir (A. alba) and Khinghan fir (A. nephrolepis), Pine (Pinus) species such as Pinus densiflora and western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla).[21][24] In Mexico, the fungus associates with Abies religiosa[27]—the mycorrhizal association between these two species has been synthesized under controlled laboratory conditions.[28] T. floccosus is more abundant in older stands of trees and places where there is more decomposed wood on the forest floor.[21] The species occurs in coniferous forests in North America, particularly the western states in late summer and autumn. They are most abundant in rainy parts of the Pacific Northwest,[24] northern California and the Sierra Nevada.[16] It also occurs through Asia, having been recorded from India,[29] Nepal, Pakistan,[11][30] Tibet,[24] China,[30] North Korea,[31] and Japan.[30][32]

Turbinellus floccosus has been occasionally recorded from introduced conifer plantations in Australia.[33]

Toxicity

α-tetradecylcitric acid

Turbinellus floccosus is poisonous to some people who eat it, but has been eaten without incident by others.[34] Nausea, vomiting and diarrhea may occur, though are sometimes delayed by up to 8–14 hours. A tricarboxylic acid known as α-tetradecylcitric- or norcaperatic acid may be responsible for the extreme gastrointestinal symptoms.[35][36] Laboratory experiments showed it increased tone of guinea pig smooth muscle of the small bowel (ileum), and that when given to rats, it led to mydriasis, skeletal muscle weakness, and central nervous system depression.[36] The concentration (4.4%) of the presumed active ingredient—norcaperatic acid—extracted from fruit bodies of Turbinellus floccosus was over double that extracted from the related T. kauffmanii.[37]

Despite its toxicity, T. floccosus is one of the ten wild mushrooms most widely consumed by ethnic tribes in Meghalaya, northeast India,[38] and is highly regarded by the Sherpa people in the vicinity of Sagarmatha National Park in Nepal.[19] What is not known is whether the populations of T. floccosus are lacking in the toxin, or whether the local people have developed an immunity to it.[39] It is also eaten in Mexico.[20] Mycologist David Arora reported some enjoyed it while he felt it had a sour taste that he found off-putting.[16]

The fruit body of T. floccosus produces oxylipin (biologically active lipids generated from fatty acids) that have antifungal activity against the plant pathogens Colletotrichum fragariae, C. gloeosporioides, and C. acutatum.[40] Extracts of the fungus have shown in standard laboratory tests to have antimicrobial activity against several human pathogenic strains.[39] T. floccosus also contains the spermidine derivative pistillarin, a bioactive compound that inhibits DNA damage by hydroxyl radicals generated by the Fenton reaction.[41] Pistillarin is responsible for the green color obtained when iron salts are applied to the fruit body surface.[23]

References

  1. ↑ de Schweinitz LD (1834). "North American Fungi". Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, New Series 4 (2): 153.
  2. ↑ Simpson DP. (1979). Cassell's Latin Dictionary (5 ed.). London, United Kingdom: Cassell. p. 883. ISBN 978-0-304-52257-6.
  3. ↑ Berkeley MJ (1839). "Exotic Fungi". Annals of Natural History 3: 380.
  4. ↑ Berkeley MJ, Curtis MA. "On New Species of North American Fungi". Annals and Magazine of Natural History, including Zoology, Botany, and Geology 4: 293.
  5. 1 2 Erickson RF. "Kuntze, Otto (1843–1907)". Botanicus.org. Retrieved 28 November 2015.
  6. ↑ Kuntze O (1891). Revisio Generum Plantarum:Vascularium Omnium atque Cellularium Multarum Secundum Leges Nomenclaturae Internationales cum Enumeratione Plantarum Exoticarum in Itinere Mundi Collectarum. Leipzig, Germany: A. Felix. pp. 862, 873.
  7. ↑ Earle FS (1909). "The Genera of North American Gill Fungi". Bulletin of the New York Botanical Garden 5: 373–451 [407].
  8. 1 2 "Record Details: Turbinellus floccosus (Schwein.) Earle". Index Fungorum. CAB International. Retrieved 18 November 2015.
  9. ↑ Singer R. (1945). "New genera of fungi". Lloydia 8: 139–44.
  10. ↑ Liddell HJ, Scott R. (1980). Greek-English Lexicon, Abridged Edition. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-910207-5.
  11. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Smith AH, Morse EE. (1947). "The genus Cantharellus in the Western United States". Mycologia 39 (5): 497–534 [499–500, 519–21]. JSTOR 3755192.
  12. 1 2 3 Giachini AJ, Castellano MA. (2011). "A new taxonomic classification for species in Gomphus sensu lato". Mycotaxon 115: 183–201. doi:10.5248/115.183.
  13. ↑ Giachini AJ, Hosaka K, Nouhra E, Spatafora J, Trappe JM. (2010). "Phylogenetic relationships of the Gomphales based on nuc-25S-rDNA, mit-12S-rDNA, and mit-atp6-DNA combined sequences". Fungal Biology 114 (2–3): 224–34. doi:10.1016/j.funbio.2010.01.002. PMID 20943133.
  14. ↑ Giachini AJ, Camelini CM, Rossi MJ, Soares CRFS, Trappe JM. (2012). "Systematics of the Gomphales: the genus Gomphus sensu stricto". Mycotaxon 120: 385–400. doi:10.5248/120.385.
  15. ↑ Bessette AE, Fischer DW, Bessette AR. (1996). Mushrooms of Northeastern North America. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press. p. 36. ISBN 978-0-8156-0388-7.
  16. 1 2 3 4 Arora D (1986). Mushrooms Demystified: a Comprehensive Guide to the Fleshy Fungi. Berkeley, California: Ten Speed Press. pp. 661–62. ISBN 978-0-89815-169-5.
  17. ↑ Tylutki E (1987) [1958]. Mushrooms of Idaho and the Pacific Northwest: Non-gilled Hymenomycetes. Moscow, Idaho: University Press of Idaho. p. 62. ISBN 978-0-893-01097-3.
  18. 1 2 Davis RM, Sommer R, Menge JA (2012). Field Guide to Mushrooms of Western North America. Oakland, California: University of California Press. p. 276. ISBN 978-0-520-95360-4.
  19. 1 2 Giri A, Rana R. (2009). "Ethnomycological knowledge and nutritional analysis of some wild edible mushrooms of Sagarmatha national Park (SNP), Nepal". Journal of Natural History Museum 23: 65–77.
  20. 1 2 González-Ávila PA, Luna-Vega I, Ríos MV, Saade RL, Blanco JC (2013). "Current knowledge and importance of the order Gomphales (Fungi: Basidiomycota) in Mexico" (PDF). Nova Hedwigia 97 (1-2): 55-86.
  21. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Giachini A (2004). Systematics, Phylogeny, and Ecology of Gomphus sensu lato (Ph.D. thesis). Corvallis, Oregon: Oregon State University.
  22. 1 2 Ammirati JF, Traquair JA, Horgen PA. (1985). Poisonous Mushrooms of the Northern United States and Canada. Minneapolis, Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press. pp. 253–54. ISBN 978-0-8166-1407-3.
  23. 1 2 Kuo M, Methven A. (2010). 100 Cool Mushrooms. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press. p. 81. ISBN 978-0-472-03417-8.
  24. 1 2 3 4 Petersen DH. (1971). "The genera Gomphus and Glococantharellus in North America". Nova Hedwigia 21: 1–118.
  25. ↑ Roberts P, Evans S. (2011). The Book of Fungi. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. p. 483. ISBN 978-0-226-72117-0.
  26. ↑ McKnight VB, McKnight KH. (1987). A Field Guide to Mushrooms: North America. Peterson Field Guides. Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin. pp. 86–87. ISBN 978-0-395-91090-0.
  27. ↑ Burrola-Aguilar C, Garibay-Orijel R, Argüelles-Moyao A. (2013). "Abies religiosa Forests Harbor the Highest Species Density and Sporocarp Productivity of Wild Edible Mushrooms among Five Different Vegetation Types in a Neotropical Temperate Forest Region". Agroforestry Systems 87 (5): 1101–15. doi:10.1007/s10457-013-9623-z.
  28. ↑ Lamus V, Franco S, Montoya L, Endara AR, Caballero LA, Bandala VM. (2015). "Mycorrhizal Synthesis of the Edible Mushroom Turbinellus floccosus with Abies religiosa from Central Mexico". Mycoscience 56 (6): 622–26. doi:10.1016/j.myc.2015.07.001.
  29. ↑ Verma RN, Singh SM, Singh TGB, Bilgrami KS (1989). "Gomphus floccosus – a new record for India". Current Science 58 (24): 1370–71.
  30. 1 2 3 Corner EJH (1966). "A Monograph of the Cantharelloid Fungi". Annals of Botany Memoirs 2. London, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press: 1–255.
  31. ↑ Wojewoda W, Heinrich Z, Komorowska H (1993). "[Macromycetes Korei Pòłnocnej] Macrofungi of North Korea". Wiadomości Botaniczne 37 (3/4): 125–28.
  32. ↑ Masui K (1926). "A Study of the Mycorrhiza of Abies firma, S. et Z., with Special Reference to its Mycorrhizal Fungus Cantharellus floccosus, Schw.". Memoirs of the College of Science. Kyoto Imperial University. Series B 2 (1): 1–84.
  33. ↑ Fuhrer BA (2005). A Field Guide to Australian Fungi. Melbourne, Victoria: Bloomings Books. p. 206. ISBN 978-1-876473-51-8.
  34. ↑ Smith AH, Weber NS (1980) [1958]. The Mushroom Hunter's Field Guide. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press. p. 83. ISBN 978-0-472-85610-7.
  35. ↑ Ammirati et al. p. 252
  36. 1 2 Carrano RA, Malone MH (1967). "Pharmacologic Study of Norcaperatic and Agaricic Acids". Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 56 (12): 1611–14. doi:10.1002/jps.2600561216.
  37. ↑ Henry ED, Sullivan G (1969). "Phytochemical Evaluation of Some Cantharelloid Fungi". Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 58 (12): 1497–1500. doi:10.1002/jps.2600581216.
  38. ↑ Khaund P, Joshi SR. (2014). "DNA Barcoding of Wild Edible Mushrooms Consumed by the Ethnic Tribes of India". Gene 550 (1): 123–30. doi:10.1016/j.gene.2014.08.027. PMID 25130907.
  39. 1 2 Khaund P, Joshi SR (2014). "The Gomphus paradox of Meghalaya: wild edible fungus or a poisonous mushroom?". In Kharwar RN, Upadhyay RS, Dubey NK, Raguwanshi R. (eds.). Microbial Diversity and Biotechnology in Food Security. Springer India. pp. 171–76. ISBN 978-81-322-1800-5.
  40. ↑ Cantrell CL, Case BP, Mena EE, Kniffin TM, Duke SO, Wedge DE. (2008). "Isolation and Identification of Antifungal Fatty Acids from the Basidiomycete Gomphus floccosus". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 56 (13): 5062–68. doi:10.1021/jf8008662. PMID 18557621.
  41. ↑ Lee I-K, Ki D-W, Kim S-E, Yeom J-L, Kim Y-S, Yun B-S (2011). "Pistillarin salt, a dicatecholspermidine family member from Gomphus floccosus, inhibits DNA single strand breakage by the Fenton reaction". Journal of the Korean Society for Applied Biological Chemistry 54 (2): 312–15. doi:10.3839/jksabc.2011.050.

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