V speeds

A single-engine Cessna 150L's airspeed indicator indicating its V speeds.

A flight envelope diagram showing V_S (stall speed at 1G), V_C (corner/maneuvering speed) and V_D (dive speed)

In aviation, V-speeds are standard terms used to define airspeeds important or useful to the operation of all aircraft.^[1] These speeds are derived from data obtained by aircraft designers and manufacturers during flight testing and verified in most countries by government flight inspectors during aircraft type-certification testing. Using them is considered a best practice to maximize aviation safety, aircraft performance or both.^[2]

The actual speeds represented by these designators are specific to a particular model of aircraft. They are expressed by the aircraft's indicated airspeed (and not by, for example, the ground speed), so that pilots may use them directly, without having to apply correction factors, as aircraft instruments also show indicated airspeed.

In general aviation aircraft, the most commonly used and most safety-critical airspeeds are displayed as color-coded arcs and lines located on the face of an aircraft's airspeed indicator. The lower ends of the green arc and the white arc are the stalling speed with wing flaps retracted, and stalling speed with wing flaps fully extended, respectively. These are the stalling speeds for the aircraft at its maximum weight.^[3][4] The yellow range is the range in which the aircraft may be operated in smooth air, and then only with caution to avoid abrupt control movement, and the red line is the Vne, the never exceed speed.

Proper display of V speeds is an airworthiness requirement for type-certificated aircraft in most countries.^[5][6]

Regulation

The most common V-speeds are often defined by a particular government's aviation regulations. In the United States, these are defined in title 14 of the United States Code of Federal Regulations, known as the Federal Aviation Regulations or FARs.^[7] In Canada, the regulatory body, Transport Canada, defines 26 commonly used V-speeds in their Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM).^[8] V-speed definitions in FAR 23, 25 and equivalent are for designing and certification of airplanes, not for their operational use. The descriptions below are for use by pilots.

Regulatory V-speeds

These V-speeds are defined by regulations. Some of the descriptions provided are simplified.

V-speed designator	Description
V1	The speed beyond which the takeoff should no longer be aborted. (See V1 definitions below)[7][8][9]
V2	Takeoff safety speed. The speed at which the aircraft may safely be climbed with one engine inoperative.[7][8][9]
V2min	Minimum takeoff safety speed.[7][8][9]
V3	Flap retraction speed.[8][9]
V4	Steady initial climb speed. The all engines operating take-off climb speed used to the point where acceleration to flap retraction speed is initiated. Should be attained by a gross height of 400 feet.[10]
VA	Design maneuvering speed. This is the speed above which it is unwise to make full application of any single flight control (or "pull to the stops") as it may generate a force greater than the aircraft's structural limitations.[7][8][9][11]
Vat	Indicated airspeed at threshold, which is usually equal to the stall speed VS0 multiplied by 1.3 or stall speed VS1g multiplied by 1.23 in the landing configuration at the maximum certificated landing mass, though some manufacturers apply different criteria (The Embraer Phenom 300 uses 1.35 VS1g). If both VS0 and VS1g are available, the higher resulting Vat shall be applied.[12] Also called "approach speed".
VB	Design speed for maximum gust intensity.[7][8][9]
VC	Design cruise speed, used to show compliance with gust intensity loading.[13]
Vcef	See V1; generally used in documentation of military aircraft performance.[14]
VD	Design diving speed, the highest speed planned to be achieved in testing.[7][8][9]
VDF	Demonstrated flight diving speed, the highest actual speed achieved in testing.[7][8][9]
VEF	The speed at which the critical engine is assumed to fail during takeoff.[7]
VF	Designed flap speed.[7][8][9]
VFC	Maximum speed for stability characteristics.[7][9]
VFE	Maximum flap extended speed.[7][8][9]
VFTO	Final takeoff speed.[7]
VH	Maximum speed in level flight at maximum continuous power.[7][8][9]
VLE	Maximum landing gear extended speed. This is the maximum speed at which a retractable gear aircraft should be flown with the landing gear extended.[7][8][9][15]
VLO	Maximum landing gear operating speed. This is the maximum speed at which the landing gear on a retractable gear aircraft should be extended or retracted.[7][9][15]
VLOF	Lift-off speed.[7][9]
VMC	Minimum control speed. Mostly used as the minimum control speed for the takeoff configuration (takeoff flaps). Several VMCs exist for different flight phases and airplane configurations: VMCG, VMCA, VMCA1, VMCA2, VMCL, VMCL1, VMCL2. Refer to the minimum control speed article for a thorough explanation.[7]
VMCA	Minimum control speed in the air (or airborne). The minimum speed at which steady straight flight can be maintained when an engine fails or is inoperative and with the corresponding opposite engine set to provide maximum thrust, provided a small (3° - 5°) bank angle is being maintained away from the inoperative engine and the rudder is used up to maximum to maintain straight flight. The exact required bank angle for VMCA to be valid should be provided by the manufacturer with VMC(A) data; any other bank angle results in a higher actual VMC(A). Refer to the minimum control speed article for a description of (pilot-induced) factors that have influence on VMCA. VMCA is also presented as VMC in many manuals.
VMCG	Minimum control speed on the ground is the lowest speed at which the takeoff may be safely continued following an engine failure during the takeoff run. Below VMCG, the throttles need to be closed at once when an engine fails, to avoid veering off the runway.[16]
VMCL	Minimum control speed in the landing configuration with one engine inoperative.[9][16]
VMO	Maximum operating limit speed.[7][8][9]
VMU	Minimum unstick speed.[7][8][9]
VNE	Never exceed speed.[7][8][9][17]
VNO	Maximum structural cruising speed or maximum speed for normal operations.[7][8][9]
VO	Maximum operating maneuvering speed.[18]
VR	Rotation speed. The speed at which the pilot begins to apply control inputs to cause the aircraft nose to pitch up, after which it will leave the ground.
Vrot	Used instead of VR (in discussions of the takeoff performance of military aircraft) to denote rotation speed in conjunction with the term Vref (refusal speed).[14]
VRef	Landing reference speed or threshold crossing speed.[7][8][9] (In discussions of the takeoff performance of military aircraft, the term Vref stands for refusal speed. Refusal speed is the maximum speed during takeoff from which the air vehicle can stop within the available remaining runway length for a specified altitude, weight, and configuration.[14] ) Incorrectly, or as an abbreviation, some documentation refers to Vref and/or Vrot speeds as "Vr."[19]
VS	Stall speed or minimum steady flight speed for which the aircraft is still controllable.[7][8][9]
VS0	Stall speed or minimum flight speed in landing configuration.[7][8][9]
VS1	Stall speed or minimum steady flight speed for which the aircraft is still controllable in a specific configuration.[7][8]
VSR	Reference stall speed.[7]
VSR0	Reference stall speed in landing configuration.[7]
VSR1	Reference stall speed in a specific configuration.[7]
VSW	Speed at which the stall warning will occur.[7]
VTOSS	Category A rotorcraft takeoff safety speed.[7][17]
VX	Speed that will allow for best angle of climb.[7][8]
VY	Speed that will allow for the best rate of climb.[7][8]

Other V-speeds

Some of these V-speeds are specific to particular types of aircraft and are not defined by regulations.

V-speed designator	Description
VBE	Best endurance speed – the speed that gives the greatest airborne time for fuel consumed.
VBG	Best power-off glide speed – the speed that provides maximum lift-to-drag ratio and thus the greatest gliding distance available.
VBR	Best range speed – the speed that gives the greatest range for fuel consumed – often identical to Vmd.[20]
VFS	Final segment of a departure with one powerplant failed.[21]
Vimd	Minimum drag[22]
Vimp	Minimum power[22]
VLLO	Maximum landing light operating speed – for aircraft with retractable landing lights.[9]
Vmbe	Maximum brake energy speed[22][23]
Vmd	Minimum drag (per lift) – often identical to VBR.[20][23] (alternatively same as Vimd[24])
Vmin	Minimum speed for instrument flight (IFR) for helicopters[17]
Vmp	Minimum power[23]
Vp	Aquaplaning speed[25]
VPD	Maximum speed at which whole-aircraft parachute deployment has been demonstrated[26]
Vra	Rough air speed (turbulence penetration speed).[9]
VSL	stall speed in a specific configuration[9][23]
Vs1g	stall speed at 1g load factor
Vsse	Safe single engine speed[27]
Vt	Threshold speed[23]
VTD	Touchdown speed[28]
VTGT	Target speed
VTO	Take-off speed. (see also VLOF)[29]
Vtocs	Take-off climbout speed (helicopters)[17]
Vtos	Minimum speed for a positive rate of climb with one engine inoperative[23]
Vtmax	Max threshold speed[23][30]
Vwo	Maximum window or canopy open operating speed[31]
VXSE	Best angle of climb speed with a single operating engine in a light, twin-engine aircraft – the speed that provides the most altitude gain per unit of horizontal distance following an engine failure, while maintaining a small bank angle that should be presented with the engine-out climb performance data.[27]
VYSE	Best rate of climb speed with a single operating engine in a light, twin-engine aircraft – the speed that provides the most altitude gain per unit of time following an engine failure, while maintaining a small bank angle that should be presented with the engine-out climb performance data.[15][27]
VZRC	Zero rate of climb speed in a twin-engine aircraft[23]

Mach numbers

Whenever a limiting speed is expressed by a Mach number, it is expressed relative to the speed of sound, e.g. V_MO: Maximum operating speed, M_MO: Maximum operating Mach Number.^[7][8]

V₁ definitions

V₁ is the critical engine failure recognition speed or takeoff decision speed. It is the speed above which the takeoff will continue even if an engine fails or another problem occurs, such as a blown tire.^[9] The speed will vary among aircraft types and varies according to factors such as aircraft weight, runway length, wing flap setting, engine thrust used and runway surface contamination, thus it must be determined by the pilot before takeoff. Aborting a takeoff after V₁ is strongly discouraged because the aircraft will by definition not be able to stop before the end of the runway, thus suffering a "runway overrun".^[32]

V₁ is defined differently in different jurisdictions:

• The US Federal Aviation Administration defines it as: "the maximum speed in the takeoff at which the pilot must take the first action (e.g., apply brakes, reduce thrust, deploy speed brakes) to stop the airplane within the accelerate-stop distance. V1 also means the minimum speed in the takeoff, following a failure of the critical engine at VEF, at which the pilot can continue the takeoff and achieve the required height above the takeoff surface within the takeoff distance."^[7]

• Transport Canada defines it as: "Critical engine failure recognition speed" and adds: "This definition is not restrictive. An operator may adopt any other definition outlined in the aircraft flight manual (AFM) of TC type-approved aircraft as long as such definition does not compromise operational safety of the aircraft."^[8]

References

1. Love, Michael C. (2005). "2". Better Takeoffs & Landings. Mc-Graw Hill. pp. 13–15. ISBN 0-07-038805-9. Retrieved 2008-05-07.
2. Craig, Paul A. (2004). "1". Multiengine Flying (3rd ed.). McGraw Hill. pp. 3–6. ISBN 0-07-142139-4. Retrieved 2008-05-07.
3. Federal Aviation Administration (July 2008). "Title 14: Aeronautics and Space PART 23—AIRWORTHINESS STANDARDS: NORMAL, UTILITY, ACROBATIC, AND COMMUTER CATEGORY AIRPLANES Subpart G—Operating Limitations and Information Markings And Placards, Part 23, §23.1545". Retrieved 2008-08-01.
4. "Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge – Chapter 7" (PDF). FAA. Retrieved 2010-01-29.
5. "Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge – Chapter 8" (PDF). FAA. Retrieved 2010-01-29.
6. Federal Aviation Administration (July 2008). "Title 14: Aeronautics and Space PART 25—AIRWORTHINESS STANDARDS: TRANSPORT CATEGORY AIRPLANES Subpart G—Operating Limitations and Information Airplane Flight Manual, Part 25, §25.1583". Retrieved 2008-08-01.
7. "Electronic Code of Federal Regulations – Chapter 14.1". Federal Aviation Administration. Retrieved 2008-05-07.
8. Transport Canada (October 2012). "Aeronautical Information Manual GEN – 1.0 GENERAL INFORMATION" (PDF). Retrieved 2013-01-01.
9. Peppler, I.L.: From The Ground Up, page 327. Aviation Publishers Co. Limited, Ottawa Ontario, Twenty Seventh Revised Edition, 1996. ISBN 0-9690054-9-0
10. CAP 698: Civil Aviation Authority JAR-FCL Examinations: Aeroplane Performance Manual (PDF). Civil Aviation Authority (United Kingdom). 2006. pp. Section 4–MRJT1 Page 3. ISBN 0-11-790653-0. Retrieved 2009-12-09.
11. FAA Advisory Circular 23-19A Airframe Guide for Certification of Part 23 Airplanes, Section 48 (p.27) Retrieved 2012-01-06
12. PANS-OPS, Volume I, Part I, Section 4, Chapter 1, 1.3.3
13. FAR Part 23.335
14. MIL-STD-3013A
15. Pilot's Encyclopedia of Aeronautical Knowledge. Federal Aviation Administration. 2007. pp. G–16. ISBN 978-1-60239-034-8. Retrieved 2008-05-12.
16. Federal Aviation Administration. (February 2009). "Title 14: Aeronautics and Space PART 25—AIRWORTHINESS STANDARDS: TRANSPORT CATEGORY AIRPLANES Subpart B—Flight Controllability and Maneuverability § 25.149 Minimum control speed.". Retrieved 2009-02-16.
17. Bell Helicopter Textron: Bell Model 212 Rotorcraft Flight Manual, page II. Bell Helicopters Textron Publishers, Fort Worth, Texas, Revision 3, 1 May 1998. BHT-212IFR-FM-1
18. USA 14CFR §23.1557 Retrieved 2012-01-06
19. TPUB INTERMEDIATE FLIGHT PREPARATION WORKBOOK APPENDIX A
20. Brandon, John (October 2008). "Flight Theory: Airspeed and the properties of air". FlySafe.raa.asn.au. Archived from the original on 1 November 2008.
21. airplanedriver.net (n.d.). "Cessna Citation". Retrieved 2009-02-14.
22. Bristow, Gary (n.d.). Ace the Technical Pilot Interview. Retrieved 2009-01-20.
23. Croucher, Phil (2007). Canadian Professional Pilot Studies. Retrieved 2009-01-20.
24. "Transportation Safety Board of Canada – A05W0109". Retrieved 2010-03-26.
25. Croucher, Phil (2007). Canadian Professional Pilot Studies. Retrieved 2009-01-20.
26. "SR20 Pilot's Operating Handbook". Cirrus Design. 2004: 8.
27. Flight Sim Aviation (2009). "Aviation Rules of Thumb – V-Speeds Abbreviations List". Retrieved 2009-01-19.
28. E.G. Tulapurkara, Chapter 10 Performance analysis VI – Take-off and landing, retrieved 18 November 2015
29. C-130 Hercules Performance Charts.
30. TheFreeDictionary (2009). "VTMAX". Retrieved 2009-01-19.
31. Blue Ridge Air Works (n.d.). "Cessna 152 – 4843H General Info". Retrieved 2009-02-13.
32. "Takeoff Safety Training Aid" (PDF). Federal Aviation Administration. p. 3. V1. [...](1) The maximum speed by which a rejected takeoff must be initiated to assure that a safe stop can be completed within the remaining runway, or runway and stopway;