Vegetarianism and religion

A vegetarian thali from Rajasthan, India. Since many Indian religions promote vegetarianism, Indian cuisine offers a wide variety of vegetarian delicacies

Vegetarianism is strongly linked with a number of religions that originated in ancient India (Jainism, Hinduism and Buddhism). In Jainism, vegetarianism is mandatory for everyone; in Hinduism and Mahayana Buddhism, it is advocated by some influential scriptures and religious authorities.[1][2] Comparatively, in the Abrahamic religions (Judaism, Christianity, and Islam), the Bahá'í Faith and Dharmic religions such as Sikhism,[3][4] vegetarianism is not promoted by mainstream authorities, although in all these faiths there are small groups actively promoting vegetarianism on religious grounds.[5][6]

Dharmic religions

Most Indian religions have philosophical schools that forbid consumption of meat and Jainism institutes an outright ban on the same. Consequently, India is home to more vegetarians than any other country. About 30% of India's 1.2 billion population practices lacto vegetarianism,[7] with overall meat consumption increasing.[8] The per capita meat consumption in India in 2002 was 5.2 kg, while it was 24 times more in the United States at 124.8 kg. Meat consumption in the United States and India grew at about 40% over the last 50 years. In 1961 Indian per capita meat consumption was 3.7 kg, while the US consumption was 89.2 kg. [9]

Jainism

Main article: Jain vegetarianism

Vegetarianism in Jainism is based on the principle of nonviolence (ahimsa, literally "non-injuring"). Vegetarianism is considered mandatory for everyone. Jains are either lacto-vegetarians or vegans.[10] No use or consumption of products obtained from dead animals is allowed. Moreover, Jains try to avoid unnecessary injury to plants and suksma jiva (Sanskrit for subtle life forms; minuscule organisms). The goal is to cause as little violence to living things as possible, hence they avoid eating roots, tubers such as Potatoes, garlic and anything that involves uprooting (and thus eventually killing) a plant to obtain food.

Every act by which a person directly or indirectly supports killing or injury is seen as violence (hinsa), which creates harmful karma. The aim of ahimsa is to prevent the accumulation of such karma.[11] Jains consider nonviolence to be the most essential religious duty for everyone (ahinsā paramo dharmaḥ, a statement often inscribed on Jain temples). Their scrupulous and thorough way of applying nonviolence to everyday activities, and especially to food, shapes their entire lives and is the most significant hallmark of Jain identity. A side effect of this strict discipline is the exercise of asceticism,[12] which is strongly encouraged in Jainism for lay people as well as for monks and nuns.

Jains do not practice animal sacrifice as they consider all sentient beings to be equal.

Hinduism

Main article: Diet in Hinduism

Vegetarianism is an integral part of most schools of Hinduism[13] although there are a wide variety of practices and beliefs that have changed over time.[14] An estimated 20 to 30% of all Hindus are vegetarians.[15][16] Some sects of Hindus do not observe vegetarianism.[17]

Nonviolence

A variety of South Indian dishes served on a banana leaf.

The principle of nonviolence (Ahinsa) applied to animals is connected with the intention to avoid negative karmic influences which result from violence. The suffering of all beings is believed to arise from craving and desire, conditioned by the karmic effects of both animal and human action. The violence of slaughtering animals for food, and its source in craving, reveal flesh eating as one mode in which humans enslave themselves to suffering.[18] Hinduism holds that such influences affect the person who permits the slaughter of an animal, the person who kills it, the person who cuts it up, the person who buys or sells meat, the person who cooks it, the person who serves it up, and the person who eats it. They must all be considered the slayers of the animal.[18] The question of religious duties towards the animals and of negative Karma incurred from violence (himsa) against them is discussed in detail in Hindu scriptures and religious law books.

Hindu scriptures belong or refer to the Vedic period which lasted till about 500 BCE according to the chronological division by modern historians. In the historical Vedic religion, the predecessor of Hinduism, meat eating was not banned in principle, but was restricted by specific rules. Several highly authoritative scriptures bar violence against domestic animals except in the case of ritual sacrifice. This view is clearly expressed in the Mahabharata (3.199.11-12;[19] 13.115; 13.116.26; 13.148.17), the Bhagavata Purana (11.5.13-14), and the Chandogya Upanishad (8.15.1). For instance, many Hindus point to the Mahabharata's maxim that "Nonviolence is the highest duty and the highest teaching,"[20] as advocating a vegetarian diet. It is also reflected in the Manu Smriti (5.27-44), a particularly renowned traditional Hindu law book (Dharmaśāstra). These texts strongly condemn the slaughter of animals and meat eating.

The Mahabharata (12.260;[21] 13.115-116; 14.28) and the Manu Smriti (5.27-55) contain lengthy discussions about the legitimacy of ritual slaughter and subsequent consumption of the meat. In the Mahabharata both meat eaters and vegetarians present various arguments to substantiate their viewpoints. Apart from the debates about domestic animals, there is also a long discourse by a hunter in defence of hunting and meat eating.[22] These texts show that both ritual slaughter and hunting were challenged by advocates of universal non-violence and their acceptability was doubtful and a matter of dispute.[23]

Spiritual aspects

In some traditions, especially within Vaishnavism, it is essential that devotees offer all their food to their chosen deity before eating it as prasad.[24] This rule is strictly observed by the disciples of the schools of Bhakti Yoga, especially the Gaudiya Vaishnavas. They worship Vishnu or Krishna, and according to the scriptural injunctions they obey, only vegetarian food is acceptable as prasad.[25]

Vegetarianism is also mandatory for the practitioners of Hatha Yoga.[26] They follow the advice of scriptures such as the Bhagavad Gita[27] to eat only high-quality food, because they are convinced that food shapes the personality, mood and mind. Meat is said to promote sloth and ignorance and an undesirable mental state known as tamas, while a vegetarian diet is considered to promote the desirable sattvic qualities essential for spiritual progress. This is because meat is said to have a higher proportion of tamas and a lower proportion of sattva, while vegetarian food is said to be more predominant in sattva.[28]

Essential scriptural evidence

"What need there be said of those innocent and healthy creatures endued with love of life, when they are sought to be slain by sinful wretches subsisting by slaughter? For this reason, O monarch, know that the discarding of meat is the highest refuge of religion, of heaven, and of happiness. Abstention from injury is the highest religion. It is, again, the highest penance. It is also the highest truths from which all duty proceeds. Flesh cannot be had from grass or wood or stone. Unless a living creature is slain, it cannot be had. Hence is the fault in eating flesh... That man who abstains from meat, is never put in fear, O king, by any creature. All creatures seek his protection. He never causes any anxiety in others, and himself has never to become anxious. If there were nobody who ate flesh there would then be nobody to kill living creatures. The man who kills living creatures kill them for the sake of the person who eats flesh. If flesh were regarded as inedible, there would then be no slaughter of living creatures. It is for the sake of the eater that the slaughter of living creatures goes on in the world. Since, O thou of great splendour, the period of life is shortened of persons who slaughter living creatures or cause them to be slaughtered, it is clear that the person who wishes his own good should give up meat entirely... The purchaser of flesh performs himsa [violence] by his wealth; he who eats flesh does so by enjoying its taste; the killer does himsa by actually tying and killing the animal. Thus, there are three forms of killing. He who brings flesh or sends for it, he who cuts off the limbs of an animal, and he who purchases, sells, or cooks flesh and eats it—all of these are to be considered meat-eaters." (Mahabharata 13.115)[29]

"Those sinful persons who are ignorant of actual religious principles, yet consider themselves to be completely pious, without compunction commit violence against innocent animals who are fully trusting in them. In their next lives, such sinful persons will be eaten by the same creatures they have killed in this world." (Bhagavata Purana 11.5.14)[30]

"A person fully aware of religious principles should never offer anything like meat, eggs or fish in the Sraddha ceremony, and even if one is a Kshatriya (warrior), he himself should not eat such things." (Bhagavata Purana 7.15.7)[31]

Current situation

In modern India the food habits of Hindus vary according to their community or caste and according to regional traditions. Hindu vegetarians usually eschew eggs but consume milk and dairy products, so they are lacto-vegetarians.

According to a survey of 2006, vegetarianism is weak in coastal states and strong in landlocked northern and western states and among Brahmins in general, 55 percent of whom are vegetarians.[32] Many coastal inhabitants are fish eaters. In particular Bengali Hindus have romanticized fishermen and the consumption of fish through poetry, literature and music.

Hindus who eat meat are encouraged to eat Jhatka meat.[33][34]

Animal sacrifice in Hinduism

Animal sacrifice in Hinduism[35] (sometimes known as Jhatka Bali) is the ritual killing of an animal in Hinduism.

The ritual sacrifice normally forms part of a festival to honour a Hindu god. For example, in Nepal the Hindu goddess Gadhimai,[36] is honoured every 5 years with the slaughter of 250,000 animals. Bali sacrifice today is common at the Sakta shrines of the Goddess Kali.[37]

Buddhism

The First Precept prohibits Buddhists from killing people or animals.[38] The matter of whether this forbids Buddhists from eating meat has long been a matter of debate.

The first Buddhist monks and nuns were forbidden from growing, storing, or cooking their own food; they relied entirely on the generosity of alms to feed themselves, and were not allowed to accept money to buy their own food.[39][40] They could not make special dietary requests, and had to accept whatever food almsgivers had available, including meat.[39] Monks and nuns of the Theravada school of Buddhism, which predominates in Sri Lanka, Thailand, Cambodia, Burma, and Laos, still follow these strictures today.

These strictures were relaxed in China, Korea, Japan, and other countries that follow Mahayana Buddhism, where monasteries were situated in remote mountain areas and the distance to the nearest towns made daily almsrounds impractical. There, Buddhist monks and nuns could cultivate their own crops, store their own harvests, cook their own meals, and accept money to buy anything else they needed in terms of food in the market.

According to the Vinaya Pitaka, when Devadatta urged him to make complete abstinence from meat compulsory, the Buddha refused, maintaining that "monks would have to accept whatever they found in their begging bowls, including meat, provided that they had not seen, had not heard, and had no reason to suspect that the animal had been killed so that the meat could be given to them".[41] There were prohibitions on specific kinds of meat: meat from humans, meat from royal animals such as elephants or horses, meat from dogs, and meat from dangerous animals like snakes, lions, tigers, panthers, bears and hyenas.[39]

On the other hand, certain Mahayana sutras strongly denounce the eating of meat. According to the Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra, the Buddha revoked this permission to eat meat and warned of a dark age when false monks would claim that they were allowed meat.[40] In the Lankavatara Sutra, a disciple of the Buddha named Mahamati asks "[Y]ou teach a doctrine that is flavoured with compassion. It is the teaching of the perfect Buddhas. And yet we eat meat nonetheless; we have not put an end to it."[42] An entire chapter is devoted to the Buddha's response, wherein he lists a litany of spiritual, physical, mental, and emotional reasons why meat-eating should be abjured.[43] However, according to Suzuki (2004:211), this chapter on meat-eating is a "later addition to the text....It is quite likely that meat-eating was practiced more or less among the earlier Buddhists, which was made a subject of severe criticism by their opponents. The Buddhists at the time of the Laṅkāvatāra did not like it, hence this addition in which an apologetic tone is noticeable."[44] Phelps (2004:64–65) points to a passage in the Surangama Sutra which implies advocacy of "not just a vegetarian, but a vegan lifestyle"; however, numerous scholars over the centuries have concluded that the Śūraṅgama Sūtra is a forgery.[45][46] Moreover, in the Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra, the same sutra which records his retraction of permission to eat meat, the Buddha explicitly identifies as "beautiful foods" honey, milk, and cream, all of which are eschewed by vegans.[40]

In the modern Buddhist world, attitudes toward vegetarianism vary by location. In China and Vietnam, monks typically eat no meat (and with other restrictions as well—see Buddhist cuisine). In Japan or Korea some schools do not eat meat, while most do. Theravadins in Sri Lanka and South-east Asia do not practice vegetarianism. All Buddhists however, including monks, are allowed to practice vegetarianism if they wish to do so. Phelps (2004:147) states that "There are no accurate statistics, but I would guess—and it is only a guess—that worldwide about half of all Buddhists are vegetarian".

Sikhism

Main article: Diet in Sikhism

Followers of Sikhism do not have a preference for meat or vegetarian consumption.[47][48][49][50] There are two views on initiated or "Amritdhari Sikhs" and meat consumption. "Amritdhari" Sikhs (i.e. those that follow the Sikh Rehat Maryada - the Official Sikh Code of Conduct[51]) can eat meat (provided it is not Kutha meat)."Amritdharis" that belong to some Sikh sects (e.g. Akhand Kirtani Jatha, Damdami Taksal, Namdhari,[52] Rarionwalay,[53] etc.) are vehemently against the consumption of meat and eggs.[54]

In the case of meat, the Sikh Gurus have indicated their preference for a simple diet,[55] which could include meat or be vegetarian. Passages from the Guru Granth Sahib (the holy book of Sikhs, also known as the Adi Granth) say that fools argue over this issue. Guru Nanak said that overconsumption of food (Lobh, Greed) involves a drain on the Earth's resources and thus on life.[56] The tenth guru, Guru Gobind Singh, prohibited the Sikhs from the consumption of halal or Kutha (any ritually slaughtered meat) meat because of the Sikh belief that sacrificing an animal in the name of God is mere ritualism (something to be avoided).[47]

On the views that eating vegetation would be eating flesh, first Sikh Guru Nanak states:

ਪਾਂਡੇ ਤੂ ਜਾਣੈ ਹੀ ਨਾਹੀ ਕਿਥਹੁ ਮਾਸੁ ਉਪੰਨਾ ॥ ਤੋਇਅਹੁ ਅੰਨੁ ਕਮਾਦੁ ਕਪਾਹਾਂ ਤੋਇਅਹੁ ਤ੍ਰਿਭਵਣੁ ਗੰਨਾ ॥

O Pandit, you do not know where did flesh originate! It is water where life originated and it is water that sustains all life. It is water that produces grains, sugarcane, cotton and all forms of life.

— First Mehl, AGGS, M 1, p 1290.[57]

On Vegetation, the Guru described it as living and experiencing pain:

Page 143 of the Sri Guru Granth Sahib Ji

Look, and see how the sugar-cane is cut down. After cutting away its branches, its feet are bound together into bundles,

and then, it is placed between the wooden rollers and crushed.
What punishment is inflicted upon it! Its juice is extracted and placed in the cauldron; as it is heated, it groans and cries out.
And then, the crushed cane is collected and burnt in the fire below.

Nanak: come, people, and see how the sweet sugar-cane is treated!

— First Mehl, Page 143 Sri Guru Granth Sahib Ji[58]

Sikhs who eat meat, eat Jhatka meat.

Abrahamic religions

Judaic, Christian, and Muslim traditions (Abrahamic religions) all have strong connections to the Biblical ideal of the Garden of Eden,[59] which includes references to a herbivore diet.[Genesis 1:29-31, Isaiah 11:6-9] However, only minorities within those populations actually practice and advocate such diets.

Judaism

Main article: Jewish vegetarianism

Rabbinical Judaism discourages "ascetic" practices[12] in general, and encourages one to 'enjoy the bounty of this world in a proper fashion'. Several passages in the Hebrew scriptures permit eating animal flesh, such as supposedly Genesis 9:3, which states "Every moving thing that liveth shall be food for you."[60][61] This verse extends such permission to all "children of Noah," i.e., all humanity. One of the sages of the Talmud asserted, "Man will have to account for everything he saw but did not eat." (This refers to permissible or kosher foods only, not to forbidden animal species such as pork.) On the other hand, the Talmud discourages indulgence and states that it is preferable that one's diet consist mostly of non-meat products. To Jewish vegetarians wishing to remain consistent with this teaching, vegetarianism is not a form of self-deprivation, because the vegetarian does not desire to eat meat and believes it is healthier not to eat meat and is aware of other negative effects of meat production and consumption.

Genesis 1:29 states "And God said: Behold, I have given you every herb yielding seed which is upon the face of all the earth, and every tree that has seed-yielding fruit—to you it shall be for food." According to some classical Jewish Bible commentators this means that God's original plan was for mankind to be vegetarian (actually vegan), and that God only later gave permission for man to eat meat because of man's weak nature.[62]· As the ideal images of the Torah are vegetarian, it is natural to similarly see the laws of kashrut as actually designed to wean Jews away from meat eating and to move them toward the vegetarian ideal.[63] The rituals of kashrut remind us of the magnitude of what we do each time we kill a living being.[63] Other commentators argue that people may eat animals because God gave Adam and Eve dominion over them. Actually, Jews have a choice in their kosher diets, and Richard Schwartz argues that this choice should consider that the production and consumption of meat and other animal products violate basic Jewish teachings on protecting human health, treating animals with compassion, protecting the environment, conserving natural resources, helping hungry people, and pursuing peace.

Generally speaking, Judaism has not promoted vegetarianism. However, some prominent rabbis have promoted vegetarian lifestyle, among them David Cohen (known as "Ha-Nazir"), and Chief Rabbi of Israel Shlomo Goren. Rabbi Yitzhak HaLevi Herzog said:

"A whole galaxy of central rabbinic and spiritual leaders... has been affirming vegetarianism as the ultimate meaning of Jewish moral teaching... Jews will move increasingly to vegetarianism out of their own deepening knowledge of what their tradition commands...[64]"
"Man ideally should not eat meat, for to eat meat a life must be taken, an animal must be put to death."

Rabbi Milgrom regards the commandment against blood as a law that permits man to "indulge in his lust for meat and not be brutalized in the process."

Some Orthodox authorities have argued that it is forbidden for an individual to become a vegetarian if they do so because they believe in animal rights; however, they have ruled that vegetarianism is allowed for pragmatic reasons (if kosher meat is expensive or hard to come by in their area), health concerns, or for reasons of personal taste (if someone finds meat unpalatable). Some believe that halakha encourages the eating of meat at the Sabbath and Festival meals; thus some Orthodox Jews who are otherwise vegetarian will nevertheless consume meat at these meals.

There are several arguments from Judaism used by Jewish vegetarians. For the Jewish vegetarian there are three main components which prove vegetarianism to be an ethical mitzvah: Tza'ar ba'alei hayyim, Pikuach nefesh and Bal tashkhit. Tza'ar ba'alei hayyim is the injunction not to cause ‘pain to living creatures’. Pikuach nefesh is not only the regard for human life which is in immediate danger. Bal Tashchit is the law which prohibits waste.[63] Another argument is that, since Adam and Eve were not allowed to eat meat and that, according to some opinions, in the Messianic era, the whole world will be vegetarian, not eating meat is something that brings the world closer to that ideal. In his booklet summarizing many of Rav Kook’s teachings, Joseph Green, a 20th-century South African Jewish vegetarian writer, concludes that Jewish religious ethical vegetarians are pioneers of the messianic era; they are leading lives that make the coming of the Messiah more likely. The Jewish tradition asserts that one way to speed the coming of the Messiah is to start practicing the ways that will prevail in the messianic time.[62] A second one is that the laws of shechita are meant to prevent the suffering of animals and today, with factory farming and high-speed, mechanized slaughterhouses, even kosher slaughterhouses are considered by some authorities not to fulfill enough of the requirements to render the meat kosher. Also, even if the slaughtering process is carried out perfectly, with a minimum of pain to the animal, the many months of cruel treatment of animals on factory farms should be considered. A third one is that the Sages only mandated eating an olive's bulk of meat during festivals, but even then, this was because in Talmudic times, meat was considered essential for one's diet.

Sacrifices were used as an excuse to eat meat, and later denounced by the biblical prophets if carried out in a society that did not practice compassion and justice.

They offer sacrifices to me because they are those who eat the meat, but Hashem does not accept their sacrifices, for He is mindful of their sin and remembers their wickedness
For I desired mercy, and not sacrifice; and the knowledge of God more than burnt offerings.
22 For when I brought your forefathers out of Egypt and spoke to them, I did not give them commands about burnt offerings and sacrifices, 23 but I gave them this command: Obey me, and I will be your God and you will be my people. Walk in all the ways I command you, that it may go well with you.
But whoever sacrifices a bull is like one who kills a man, and whoever offers a lamb, like one who breaks a dog's neck and whoever makes a grain offering is like one who presents pig's blood, and whoever burns memorial incense, like one who worships an idol. They have chosen their own ways, and their souls delight in their abominations;

In Israel there is one vegetarian moshav (village), called Amirim. Its vegetarianism is based on general principles of health and ethics and not on the Jewish religion.

Jewish Veg is a grassroots organization promoting veganism as "God's ideal diet".[65]

The Shamayim V'Aretz Institute[66] led by Rabbi Shmuly Yanklowitz promotes a vegan diet in the Jewish community through animal welfare activism, kosher veganism, and Jewish spirituality.

Notable Jewish vegetarians include David Rosen, She'ar Yashuv Cohen, Roberta Kalechofsky, Yonassan Gershom, Shmuly Yanklowitz, Richard H. Schwartz, and Isaac Bashevis Singer. Jonathan Safran Foer narrated the short documentary film If This Is Kosher..., which records what he considers abuses within the kosher meat industry.[67]

Christianity

Joseph Bates, vegetarian and one of the founders of the Seventh-day Adventist Church.

Several Christian monastic groups, including the Desert Fathers, Trappists, Benedictines, Cistercians and Carthusians, all of the Orthodox monks and also Christian esoteric groups, such as the Rosicrucian Fellowship, have encouraged vegetarianism.[68][69]

The Bible Christian Church, a Christian vegetarian sect founded by Reverend William Cowherd in 1809, were one of the philosophical forerunners of the Vegetarian Society.[70][71] Cowherd encouraged members to abstain from eating of meat as a form of temperance.[72]

Some Christian groups, such as Seventh-day Adventists, the Christian Vegetarian Association and Christian anarchists, take a literal interpretation of the Biblical prophecies of universal veg(etari)anism[Genesis 1:29-31, Isaiah 11:6-9, Isaiah 65:25] and encourage veg(etari)anism as preferred lifestyles or as a tool to reject the commodity status of animals and the use of animal products for any purpose, although some of them say it is not required. Other groups point instead to allegedly explicit prophecies of temple sacrifices in the Messianic Kingdom, e.g. Ezekiel 46:12, where so-called peace offerings and so-called freewill offerings are said that will be offered, and Leviticus 7:15-20 where it states that such offerings are eaten, what may contradict the very purpose of Jesus' purportedly sufficient atonement.

Some Christian vegetarians, such as Keith Akers, argue that Jesus himself was a vegetarian.[73] Akers argues that Jesus was influenced by the Essenes, an ascetic Jewish sect. The present academic consensus is that Jesus was not an Essene.[74] There is no historical record of Jesus’ precise attitudes to animals, but there is a strand in his ethical teaching about the primacy of mercy to the weak, the powerless and the oppressed, which Walters and Portmess argue can also refer to captive animals.[18]

Eastern Christianity generally recommends veganism. Vegetarianism is practiced as part of fasting during the Great Lent (although shellfish and other non-vertebrate products are generally considered acceptable during some periods of this time); vegan fasting is particularly common in Eastern Orthodoxy and Oriental Orthodox Churches, such as the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, which generally fasts 210 days out of the year.

Islam

Islam explicitly prohibits eating of some kinds of meat, especially pork. However, one of the most important Islamic celebrations, Eid ul-Adha, involves animal sacrifices. Muslims who can afford to do so sacrifice a domestic animals (usually sheep, but also camels, cows, and goats). According to the Quran,[75] a large portion of the meat has to be given towards the poor and hungry, and every effort is to be made to see that no impoverished Muslim is left without sacrificial food during days of feast like Eid-ul-Adha.[76] Certain Islamic orders are mainly vegetarian; many Sufis maintain a vegetarian diet.[77]

Rastafari

Rastafarians generally follow a diet called "I-tal", which eschews the eating of food that has been artificially preserved, flavoured, or chemically altered in any way. Some Rastafarians consider it to also forbid the eating of meat but the majority will not eat pork at the very least, considering it unclean.

Bahá'í Faith

While there are no dietary restrictions in the Bahá'í Faith, `Abdu'l-Bahá, the son of the founder of the religion, noted that a vegetarian diet consisting of fruits and grains was desirable, except for people with a weak constitution or those that are sick.[78] He stated that there are no requirements that Bahá'ís become vegetarian, but that a future society would gradually become vegetarian.[78][79][80] `Abdu'l-Bahá also stated that killing animals was somewhat contrary to compassion.[78] While Shoghi Effendi, the head of the Bahá'í Faith in the first half of the 20th century, stated that a purely vegetarian diet would be preferable since it avoided killing animals,[81] both he and the Universal House of Justice, the governing body of the Bahá'ís have stated that these teachings do not constitute a Bahá'í practice and that Bahá'ís can choose to eat whatever they wish, but to be respectful of others beliefs.[78]

Other religions

Nation of Islam

The Nation of Islam promotes vegetarianism deeming it the "most healthful and virtuous way to eat".[82]

Taoism

In Chinese societies, "simple eating" (素食 Mandarin: sù shí) refers to a particular restricted diet associated with Taoist monks, and sometimes practiced by members of the general population during Taoist festivals and fasting days. It is similar to Chinese Buddhist vegetarianism. Varying levels of abstinence among Taoists and Taoist-influenced people include veganism, veganism without root vegetables, lacto-ovo vegetarianism, and pescetarianism. Taoist vegetarians also tend to abstain from alcohol and pungent vegetables such as garlic and onions during lenten days. Non-vegetarian Taoists sometimes abstain from beef and water buffalo meat for many cultural reasons.

Vegetarianism in the Taoist tradition is similar to that of Lent in the Christian tradition. While highly religious people such as monks may be vegetarian, vegan or pescetarian on a permanent basis, lay practitioners often eat vegetarian on the 1st (new moon), 8th, 14th, 18th, 23rd, 24th, 28th, 29th and 30th days of the lunar calendar. In accordance with their Buddhist peers, and because many people are both Taoist and Buddhist, they often also eat lenten on the 15th day (full moon). Taoist vegetarianism is similar to Chinese Buddhist vegetarianism, however, its roots reach to pre-Buddhist times. Believers historically abstained from animal products and alcohol before practicing Confucian, Taoist and Chinese folk religion rites.

It is referred to by the English word "vegetarian"; however, though it rejects meat, eggs, and milk, this diet may include oysters and oyster products or otherwise be pescetarian for some believers. Many lay Taoists who follow modern sects such as that of Yi Guan Dao or Master Ching Hai are vegan or strictly vegetarian.

Zoroastrianism

One of the main precepts in Zoroastrianism is respect and kindness towards all living things and condemnation of cruelty against animals

The Shahnameh states that the evil king of Iran, Zohak was first taught eating meat by the evil one who came to him in the guise of a cook. This was the start of an age of great evil for Iran. Prior to this, in the Golden age of mankind in the days of the great Aryan Kings, man did not eat meat.

The Pahlavi scriptures state that in the final stages of the world, when the final Saviour Saoshyant arrives, man will become more spiritual and gradually give up meat eating.

Vegetarianism is stated to be the future state of the world in Pahlavi scriptures - Atrupat-e Emetan in Iran in Denkard Book VI requested all Zoroastrians to be vegetarians:

"ku.san enez a-on ku urwar xwarishn bawed shmah mardoman ku derziwishn bawed, ud az tan i gospand pahrezed, ce amar was, eg Ohrmaz i xwaday hay.yarih i gospand ray urwar was dad."

Meaning: They hold this also: Be plant eaters (urwar xwarishn) (i.e. vegetarian), O you, men, so that you may live long. Keep away from the body of cattle (tan i gospand), and deeply reckon that Ohrmazd, the Lord has created plants in great number for helping cattle (and men)."

Neopaganism

There is no set teaching on vegetarianism within the diverse neopagan communities, however many do follow a vegetarian diet often connected to ecological concerns as well as the welfare and rights of animals. Vegetarian practitioners of Wicca will often see their standpoint as a natural extension of the Wiccan Rede. Organizations like SERV refer to the historic figures of Porphyry, Pythagoras and Iamblichus as sources for the Pagan view of vegetarianism.[83] During the 1970s the publication Earth Religion News, focused on articles related to neopaganism and vegetarianism, it was edited by the author Herman Slater.[84]

Meher Baba's teachings

The spiritual teacher Meher Baba recommended a vegetarian diet for his followers[85] because he held that it helps one to avoid certain impurities: "Killing an animal for sport, pleasure or food means catching all its bad impressions, since the motive is selfish....Impressions are contagious. Eating meat is prohibited in many spiritual disciplines because therein the person catches the impressions of the animal, thus rendering himself more susceptible to lust and anger."[86]

The Creativity Movement

The Creativity religion promotes[87][88][89][90] a form of raw veganism in its "Salubrious Living" doctrine named after the third text of the faith written by Ben Klassen, which encourages the consumption of only raw foods in their "natural state, basically fruits, vegetables, grains and nuts,"[91] getting plenty of physical exercise as well as abstinence from alcohol, nicotine, caffeine, sugar, preservatives, insecticides, narcotics and other drugs whether prescription or non-prescription.[92] Salubrious Living is considered mandatory to "fully practice" Creativity and a lawsuit is currently in place against the Bureau of Prisons to get it recognized as a religious dietary preference [93] for incarcerated adherents of the religious movement.

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Tähtinen, Unto (1976). Ahimsa: Non-Violence in Indian Tradition. London. pp. 107–111.
  2. ↑ Walters, Kerry S.; Lisa Portmess (2001). Religious Vegetarianism From Hesiod to the Dalai Lama. Albany. pp. 37–91.
  3. ↑ "What Do You Know of the Akhand Kirtani Jatha?". Sikhism 101. UniversalFaith.net.
  4. ↑ "http://www.sikhism.com/rehatmaryada". Sikhism: A Universal Message. 13 March 2009. External link in |title= (help)
  5. ↑ Walters, Kerry S.; Lisa Portmess (2001). Religious Vegetarianism From Hesiod to the Dalai Lama. Albany. pp. 123–167.
  6. ↑ Iacobbo, Karen; Michael Iacobbo (2004). Vegetarian America. A History. Westport. pp. 3–14, 97–99, 232–233.
  7. ↑ Nelson, Dean (20 November 2009). "India tells West to stop eating beef". The Daily Telegraph (London).
  8. ↑ Increased meat consumption in India, China driving global food prices: EU
  9. ↑ Brown, Felicity (2009-09-02). "Meat consumption per capita". The Guardian. Retrieved 13 April 2013.
  10. ↑ "Dietary code of practice amongst Jains". International Vegetarian Union (IVU). Retrieved 28 April 2015.
  11. ↑ Laidlaw, James: Riches and Renunciation. Religion, economy, and society among the Jains, Oxford 1995, p. 26-30, 191-195.
  12. 1 2 Disclaimer: "The meaning of asceticism discourses is complex." The word, however, is frequently used in a derogatory way against the veg(etari)an movement. Characterizing veganism as asceticism, pp. 141–142. In: Matthew Cole, Karen Morgan (2011). "Vegaphobia: derogatory discourses of veganism and the reproduction of speciesism in UK national newspapers". The British Journal of Sociology 62 (1). doi:10.1111/j.1468-4446.2010.01348.x. Retrieved 6 March 2011.
  13. ↑ Simoons, Frederick (1994). Eat not this flesh: food avoidances from prehistory to the present. Univ of Wisconsin Press. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-299-14254-4.
  14. ↑ Klostermaier, Klaus K. A survey of Hinduism (Edition: 2 ed.). SUNY Press. p. 165. ISBN 978-0-7914-2109-3.
  15. ↑ Schmidt, Arno; Fieldhouse, Paul (2007). The world religions cookbook. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 99. ISBN 978-0-313-33504-4.
  16. ↑ Badlani, Dr. Hiro G. (23 September 2008). "48". HINDUISM PATH OF THE ANCIENT WISDOM. Global Authors Publishers. p. 260. ISBN 978-0-595-70183-4. Retrieved 13 June 2010.
  17. ↑ Antoine Dubois, Jean; Carrie Chapman Catt. Hindu Manners, Customs and Ceremonies: The Classic First Hand Account of India in the Early Nineteenth Century. Henry K. Beauchamp. Courier Dover Publications. p. 110. ISBN 0-486-42115-5.
  18. 1 2 3 Walters, Kerry S. and Portmess, Lisa. Religious Vegetarianism: From Hesiod to the Dalai Lama. State University of New York Press. New York, 2001. pp. 41, 42, 61, 62, 187, 191. ISBN 0-7914-4972-6.
  19. ↑ Mahabharata 3.199 is 3.207 according to another count.
  20. ↑ Mahabharata 13.116.37-41
  21. ↑ Mahabharata 12.260. Mahabharata 12.260 is 12.268 according to another count.
  22. ↑ Mahabharata 3.199. Mahabharata 3.199 is 3.207 according to another count.
  23. ↑ Alsdorf pp. 572–577 (for the Manu Smriti) and pp. 585-597 (for the Mahabharata).
  24. ↑ Bhagavad Gita 3.13.
  25. ↑ Mahabharata 12.257 (note that Mahabharata 12.257 is 12.265 according to another count); Bhagavad Gita 9.26; Bhagavata Purana 7.15.7.
  26. ↑ Gherand Samhita 5.17-21.
  27. ↑ Bhagavad Gita 17.7-10.
  28. ↑ "Vegetarian vs Non Vegetarian Diet | SSRF English". SSRF English. Retrieved 2016-04-30.
  29. ↑ Mahabharata 13.115.
  30. ↑ Bhagavata Purana 11.5.14.
  31. ↑ Bhagavata Purana 7.15.7.
  32. ↑ Yadav, Y.; Kumar, S (August 14, 2006). "The food habits of a nation". The Hindu. Retrieved 17 November 2006.
  33. ↑ The Hindu - Changes in the Indian menu over the ages
  34. ↑ Das, Veena (13 February 2003). The Oxford India companion to sociology and social anthropology, Volume 1 1. OUP India. p. 151. ISBN 0-19-564582-0. Retrieved 13 June 2010.
  35. ↑ O.P. Radhan (September 2002). Encyclopaedia of Political Parties. 33 to 50. Anmol, India. p. 854. ISBN 81-7488-865-9.
  36. ↑ Lang, Olivia (24 November 2009). "Hindu sacrifice of 250,000 animals begins". The Guardian. Retrieved 27 July 2010.
  37. ↑ Julius J. Lipner (23 July 1998). "9". Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices (Library of Religious Beliefs and Practices) [Paperback]. Routledge; New edition. p. 185. ISBN 0-415-05182-7. Retrieved 27 October 2010.
  38. ↑ "Leading a Buddhist Life and the Five Precepts".
  39. 1 2 3 "What the Buddha Said About Eating Meat".
  40. 1 2 3 "Nirvana Sutra: Appreciation of the "Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra"". Retrieved 2013-03-23.
  41. ↑ Phelps 2004:76
  42. ↑ "Lankavatara Sutra – The Faults of Eating Meat".
  43. ↑ Phelps 2004:61–63
  44. ↑ Suzuki, D. T. The Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra: A Mahāyāna Text. Buddhist Tradition Series 40. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 81-208-1655-2. This chapter on meat-eating is another later addition to the text, which was probably done earlier than the Rāvaṇa chapter. It already appears in the Sung, but of the three Chinese versions it appears here in its shortest form, the proportion being S = 1, T = 2, W = 3. It is quite likely that meat-eating was practised more or less among the earlier Buddhists, which was made a subject of severe criticism by their opponents. The Buddhists at the time of the Laṅkāvatāra did not like it, hence this addition in which an apologetic tone is noticeable.
  45. ↑ Hurvitz, Leon (1967), The Surangama Sutra. Review in Journal of Asian Studies, Vol.26, issue 3, may 1967, pp. 482-484
  46. ↑ Faure, Bernard (1991), The Rhetoric of Imeediacy. A Cultural Critique of Chan/Zen Buddhism, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press
  47. 1 2 "Misconceptions About Eating Meat - Comments of Sikh Scholars," at The Sikhism Home Page
  48. ↑ Sikhs and Sikhism, by I.J. Singh, Manohar, Delhi ISBN 978-81-7304-058-0: Throughout Sikh history, there have been movements or subsects of Sikhism which have espoused vegetarianism. I think there is no basis for such dogma or practice in Sikhism. Certainly Sikhs do not think that a vegetarian's achievements in spirituality are easier or higher. It is surprising to see that vegetarianism is such an important facet of Hindu practice in light of the fact that animal sacrifice was a significant and much valued Hindu Vedic ritual for ages. Guru Nanak in his writings clearly rejected both sides of the arguments—on the virtues of vegetarianism or meat eating—as banal and so much nonsense, nor did he accept the idea that a cow was somehow more sacred than a horse or a chicken. He also refused to be drawn into a contention on the differences between flesh and greens, for instance. History tells us that to impart this message, Nanak cooked meat at an important Hindu festival in Kurukshetra. Having cooked it he certainly did not waste it, but probably served it to his followers and ate himself. History is quite clear that Guru Hargobind and Guru Gobind Singh were accomplished and avid hunters. The game was cooked and put to good use, to throw it away would have been an awful waste.
  49. ↑ Guru Granth Sahib, An Analytical Study by Surindar Singh Kohli, Singh Bros. Amritsar ISBN 81-7205-060-7: The ideas of devotion and service in Vaishnavism have been accepted by Adi Granth, but the insistence of Vaishnavas on vegetarian diet has been rejected.
  50. ↑ A History of the Sikh People by Dr. Gopal Singh, World Sikh University Press, Delhi ISBN 978-81-7023-139-4: However, it is strange that now-a-days in the Community-Kitchen attached to the Sikh temples, and called the Guru's Kitchen (or, Guru-ka-langar) meat-dishes are not served at all. May be, it is on account of its being, perhaps, expensive, or not easy to keep for long. Or, perhaps the Vaishnava tradition is too strong to be shaken off.
  51. ↑ "Sikh Reht Maryada, The Definition of Sikh, Sikh Conduct & Conventions, Sikh Religion Living, India". www.sgpc.net. Retrieved 29 August 2009.
  52. ↑ Vegetarianism and Meat-Eating in 8 Religions April/May/June, 2007 Hinduism Today
  53. ↑ Philosophy of Sikhism by Gyani Sher Singh (Ph. D), Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee. Amritsar: As a true Vaisnavite Kabir remained a strict vegetarian. Kabir far from defying Brahmanical tradition as to the eating of meat, would not permit so much, as the plucking of a flower (G.G.S. p. 479), whereas Nanak deemed all such scruples to be superstitions, Kabir held the doctrine of Ahinsa or the non-destruction of life, which extended even to that of flowers. The Sikh Gurus, on the contrary, allowed and even encouraged, the use of animal flesh as food. Nanak has exposed this Ahinsa superstition in Asa Ki War (G.G.S. p. 472) and Malar Ke War (G.G.S. p. 1288)
  54. ↑ "Langar," at http://www.sikhwomen.com
  55. ↑ Singh, Prithi Pal (2006). "3 Guru Amar Das". The History of Sikh Gurus. New Delhi: Lotus Press. p. 38. ISBN 81-8382-075-1.
  56. ↑ "The Sikhism Home Page". Sikhs.org. Retrieved 9 August 2009.
  57. ↑ "Sri Guru Granth Sahib". Sri Granth. Retrieved 9 August 2009.
  58. ↑ Sikh Gurus. "Sri Guru Granth Sahib Ji". pp. 142 to 143. Retrieved 25 November 2009.
  59. ↑ Eric Baratay, l'anthropocentrisme du christianisme occidental, Si les lions pouvaient parler, essais sur la condition animale, sous la direction de Boris Cyrulnik, Gallimard, ISBN 2-07-073709-8
  60. ↑ John Vujicic. "Did God allow Noah to eat meat?".
  61. ↑ All-creatures.org. "Commentary on Genesis 9:2-4 - : Comments and Discussions".
  62. 1 2 Schwartz, Richard H. Judaism and Vegetarianism. Lantern Books. New York, 2001. pp. 1, 12, 16, 19, 188. ISBN 1-930051-24-7.
  63. 1 2 3 Kalechofsky, Roberta. Rabbis and Vegetarianism: An Evolving Tradition. Micah Publications. Massachusetts, 1995. pp. 16, 54, 55, 65, 66, 68, 70, 71. ISBN 0-916288-42-0.
  64. ↑ Quoted in The Animals' Agenda, Volume 9, Animal Rights Network, 1989, p. 32.
  65. ↑ What's Jewish About Being Veg
  66. ↑ http://www.shamayimvaretz.org
  67. ↑ Foer, Jonathan Safran. "If This Is Kosher…".
  68. ↑ Article The Wisdom of the Vegetarian Diet by The Rosicrucian Fellowship (Esoteric Christians)
  69. ↑ Max Heindel (1910s), New Age Vegetarian Cookbook, The Rosicrucian Fellowship (publisher), 492 pages
  70. ↑ "The Bible Christian Church". International Vegetarian Union.
  71. ↑ "History of Vegetarianism - Early Ideas". The Vegetarian Society. Retrieved 2008-07-08.; Gregory, James (2007) Of Victorians and Vegetarians. London: I. B. Tauris pp. 30–35.
  72. ↑ "William Cowherd (brief information)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Retrieved 2008-07-08.
  73. ↑ Keith Akers. "Was Jesus a vegetarian?". Retrieved 23 October 2010.
  74. ↑ Young, Richard Alan. Is God a Vegetarian?. Carus Publishing Company. Chicago, 1999. pp. 4, 7, 56, 117. ISBN 0-8126-9393-0.
  75. ↑ http://quran.com/22|22: 28
  76. ↑ http://quran.com/22|22: 36
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  83. ↑ http://www.serv-online.org/Pagan-quotations.htm
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  86. ↑ Baba, Meher (1988). Sparks of the Truth: From the Dissertations of Meher Baba. Myrtle Beach: Sheriar Press. pp. 24-25. ISBN 0-913078-02-6.
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  88. ↑ https://creativityreligion.wordpress.com
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  91. ↑ http://www.religioustolerance.org/wcotc3.htm
  92. ↑ Little White Book – 07 Three Short Rules for Maintaining Excellent Health
  93. ↑ http://theendofzion.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Hale-Civil-Complaint-FINAL.01-09-14.pdf

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