Whaling in Iceland

Icelandic whaling vessels in Reykjavík harbour

Whaling in Iceland began with spear-drift whaling which was practiced from as early as the 12th century and continued in a relic form until the late 19th century. The relationship with whales is reflected in the Icelandic language: hvalreki is the word for "beached whale", while also meaning something good that is unexpectedly yours or at your disposal.[1] Modern commercial whaling was introduced to Iceland by companies from other nations in the late 19th century. Today, Iceland is involved in commercial whaling under objection to an ongoing moratorium established by the International Whaling Commission in 1986.[2][3]

History

Icelanders flenching a whale from a 16th-century manuscript.

Ancient literature, such as the Norse sagas, does not reveal a history of whale fisheries in Iceland but occasionally describes conflicts between various families over whale carcasses and early links between Scandinavian people and whales. For example, Vikings from Norway introduced the whaling techniques of driving small cetaceans, such as pilot whales, into fjords. Additionally, the 13th century document Konungs skuggsjá describes a number of marine mammals including several types of whales and dolphins. A 17th-century work by Jón Guðmundsson specifically lists whales recognized today as the sperm whale, narwhal, right whale, fin whale and the blue whale. Narwhals were hunted for the spiral shaped ivory tooth, sometimes presented as a mythical unicorn's horn.[4]

Spear-drift whaling had been practiced in the North Atlantic as early as the 12th century. In open boats, hunters would strike a whale with a marked spear with the intent of later locating the beached carcass and claiming a rightful share.[5]

In the 17th and 18th centuries Spanish whalers hunted in Icelandic waters. Despite any mutually beneficial results, in 1615, a crew of 32 shipwrecked and stranded Spanish were executed by Icelanders. Jón Guðmundsson condemned the local sheriff for this decision in his account of the event.[2] Since 2005, historian Magnús Rafnsson and archaeologist Dr. Ragnar Edvardsson have been excavating the remains of a 17th-century Spanish whaling station in the northwest of Iceland.

Modern whaling

Whalers from America, Norway and other European nations expanded their industries into Icelandic waters with new techniques and technology in the late 19th century. In 1865, Americans Thomas Welcome Roys and C. A. Lilliendahl tested their experimental rocket harpoon design and set up a shore station in Seydisfjördur. However, a slump in oil prices after the American Civil War forced their endeavor into bankruptcy in 1867.[6] A Danish naval officer, O.C. Hammer, set up two shore stations in Iceland and used Roys' rocket harpoon design. Norwegian Svend Foyn (famous for later inventing the modern whaling harpoon) also studied the American method in Iceland.[7]

In 1883, whaling expanded from Norwegian waters to Iceland as unrestricted catching depleted whale stocks off the coast of Norway.[8] Svend Foyn made several attempts to profit from whaling in Iceland but was ultimately unsuccessful. In reaction to demands that Norwegians working in Iceland should become naturalized Icelandic (Danish) subjects, Foyn sold his shares to company partners and abandoned his plans for whaling in Iceland. The major shareholder, Thomas Amlie of Oslo, assumed the role of expedition manager and enjoyed great success. As a result, competing companies transferred their operations to Iceland. At the age of 82, Amlie was lost at sea with one of his whaling ships and all 32 hands in a violent 1897 storm. Amlie is considered the father of modern whaling in Iceland.[9]

Between 1883 and 1915 ten (mostly Norwegian) whaling companies were founded and operated 14 shore stations on the east and west coasts of Iceland. One of the most successful companies, managed by Hans Elefsen, in its best year produced 1/4 of all of the whale oil in Iceland. He also used whale carcasses stripped of their blubber as raw material for a guano factory. However, in response to the decline of whale stocks, Elefsen moved his operation to South Africa in 1911.[10]

In 1897 the Whale Industry Company of Iceland (Hval-Industri Aktieselskabet Island - also called the Icelandic Whaling Company) was established. An Icelandic merchant named A. Asgeirsson was its promoter and major stockholder but the company was heavily dependent on Norwegian personnel and equipment. After years of unsuccessful operation it went bankrupt and closed in 1913.[11]

Blue and fin whales were primarily hunted but humpback and sei whales were also included. However, prior to 1914 Icelanders did not hunt minke whales. Superstition held that minke whales were sent by God as protectors.[6]

National whaling ban

Local Icelanders held mixed opinions on the whaling industry. Some welcomed the added earnings from taxes, duties and levies. Others complained that whaling ruined their herring fishery. As a result, in 1886 a May to October ban was enacted on whaling in herring fishing areas and Icelandic territorial waters. However, most whaling was done outside of the prohibited areas and went on unaffected by the limited ban.[12]

In 1903 another whaling ban was proposed only to be thrown out by the Althing. Later in 1913, a total ban on whaling was enacted to start October 1, 1915. The ban was imposed in order to preserve whale stocks for Icelandic interests due to a perceived Norwegian threat.[6][12]

The law was repealed in 1928 and in 1935 the government of Iceland issued a permit for one whaling station at Tálknafjörður (which later folded in 1939). A new 1935 law declared that whales in Icelandic territorial waters could only be hunted by Icelanders. In 1948, the Hvalur H/F company purchased an American naval base at Hvalfjörður (Whale Fjord) and converted it into a whaling station. Norwegian crews were involved in training Icelandic whalers into the early 1950s.[2][13][14]

ICRW and IWC

Signing the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling, Washington, D.C. December 2nd, 1946

The International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling was created in 1946 in Washington, D.C. to "provide for the proper conservation of whale stocks and thus make possible the orderly development of the whaling industry".[15] Based on the previous 1937 International Agreement and subsequent Protocols to that agreement in 1938 and 1945, the ICRW led to the 1949 creation of the International Whaling Commission and consists of guidelines for the international regulation of coastal and pelagic whaling. Iceland was a member of the IWC from the outset in 1949. (Critics charge that the IWC and ICRW have largely failed due to a lack of enforceable rules and regulatory loopholes)

Like many other whaling nations, Icelandic whaling was inconsistent in conforming to rules established by the IWC. For example, in 1954 the IWC adopted a proposal for the total protection of blue whales in response to concerns that localized protection was not effective. Blue whales were not to be taken in the North Atlantic for five years (from 1955–59). However, Iceland objected and continued to hunt blues until 1960.[16]

In 1956, Icelandic fishermen believed a large population of orcas (killer whales) threatened their fisheries. After failing to clear the orcas from a series of nets, Icelanders called upon the U.S. Air Force for assistance. As a NATO ally, the United States maintained an air base in Keflavik. The U.S. Air Force responded with machine guns, rockets and depth charges to drive out the Orcas.[13] (The Keflavik base would later become a point of diplomatic contention between the United States and Iceland due, in part, to disagreements over whaling.)

Prior to 1974 minke whaling went unregulated in Iceland. National authorities set quotas and limits for Icelandic whalers but IWC quotas were not established for North Atlantic minke whales until 1977.[6] Before 1977, minke whales were indeed taken by fishermen from small villages but were considered too insignificant to record catch statistics. The new IWC minke quotas were shared between Iceland, Norway and Denmark.[13]

Between 1977 and 1983, Hvalur H/F (the Icelandic whaling company owned and operated by Kristján Loftsson) had taken hundreds of undersized fin and sei whales and exported the meat to Japan, according to an IWC report.[17]

Moratorium

In 1972, the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment produced a 52-0 vote in favor of a 10 year global moratorium on commercial whaling. However, the UN resolution was not adopted by the IWC by a vote of 6-no, 4-yes and 4-abstain. Iceland, Japan, Russia, Norway, South Africa and Panama voted no.[18]

In 1973, a moratorium was once again proposed and voted down in the IWC lacking the required 3/4 majority. (8-yes, 5-no, 1-abstain). Iceland, Japan, Russia, Norway and South Africa again voted no.[18]

Between 1973 and 1982 the IWC would see its membership increase from 14 member nations to 37 perhaps stacking the vote in favor of anti-whaling nations.

In 1980 and 1981 two more votes failed to establish a moratorium by a 3/4 majority.(13-9-2 and 16-8-3) [19]

In 1982, the International Whaling Commission (IWC) finally voted in favor of a moratorium on commercial whaling to go into force in 1986 (25-7-5).

Unlike Norway, Iceland did not officially object to the IWC moratorium and was therefore obligated to abide by the new restrictions. The Althing, perhaps under pressure from the USA, voted 29-28 not to object.[17]

Research whaling

By 1985, like Japan, Iceland submitted proposals to the IWC to continue whaling for research purposes under Article VIII of the ICRW. Iceland proposed a catch of up to 80 fin whales, 40 sei whales, 80 minkes and a limited experimental catch of blue and humpback whales. The research would be funded through the sale of whale meat to Japan. However, the proposal was denied by the IWC scientific committee in 1986.[20]

Article VIII


1. Notwithstanding anything contained in this Convention any Contracting Government may grant to any of its nationals a special permit authorizing that national to kill, take and treat whales for purposes of scientific research subject to such restrictions as to number and subject to such other conditions as the Contracting Government thinks fit, and the killing, taking, and treating of whales in accordance with the provisions of this Article shall be exempt from the operation of this Convention. Each Contracting Government shall report at once to the Commission all such authorizations which it has granted. Each Contracting Government may at any time revoke any such special permit which it has granted.

2. Any whales taken under these special permits shall so far as practicable be processed and the proceeds shall be dealt with in accordance with directions issued by the Government by which the permit was granted.[15]

In an attempt to gain acceptance of its proposals and under pressure from the United States, Iceland reduced the proposed whale meat exports from 95% to 49% of the total catch and the requested quota from 200 to 120 whales. Despite a domestic campaign to encourage Icelanders to consume more whale meat, most of the supply was used as feed on fur farms or spoiled in warehouses. In an open letter to the government, Icelandic biologists condemned the program.[20]

Hvalur H/F took 386 fin and sei whales under scientific permit between 1986 and 1989. Despite IWC resolutions that required member states to use the meat domestically, Iceland exported up to 77% to Japan.[17]

International pressure

Opposition outside of Iceland mounted a formidable front against Iceland's whaling industry through direct interference, protest, economic and diplomatic pressure.

In 1978, Greenpeace attempted to interfere with the hunt using the ship Rainbow Warrior. When they returned in 1979, Hvalur ships fired harpoons over the protesters. Iceland began sending naval escorts with the whalers and twice seized the Rainbow Warrior with gunboats. The second incident occurred in international waters and Greenpeace Zodiacs were taken.[21]

On November 6, 1986, Rodney Coronado and David Howitt, activists linked to the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society, sabotaged a whaling station at Hvalfjörd by destroying machinery and computers.[22] They also unbolted the engines' raw water intakes on two of Iceland's four whaling ships and sank the vessels, still anchored, in Reykjavik harbour.[17][20]

In 1987, Greenpeace action led to the seizure, in Hamburg, of 170 tons of Icelandic whale meat bound for Japan. The action was repeated in Finland in 1988 and claimed 197 tons. In each case the shipments were confiscated by local authorities in accordance with CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species).[23]

During this time, the United States was involved in diplomatic negotiations with whaling nations such as Iceland and Japan. However, the U.S. was considered to be responsible for whaling troubles by many Icelanders. In October 1986, President Ronald Reagan was booed during the "Superpower Summit" and some lobbied against the American air base at Keflavik. It was argued that the U.S. and the IWC had no standing to interfere with Iceland's sovereignty regarding whale research. Despite the diplomatic tension, U.S. negotiators struck an agreement that would allow Iceland to take 20 sei whales, without the threat of U.S. sanctions (under the Pelly Amendment to the US Fishermen's Protection Act the U.S. President could establish an embargo against Iceland's fisheries). Iceland was required to submit a full research proposal in 1988. Japan also agreed not to purchase whale meat from Iceland to secure fishing rights in Alaskan waters.[24]

By 1989, boycotts of Icelandic fish, organized by Greenpeace and other anti-whaling organizations, began to take a toll on Iceland's economy. Major buyers, such as supermarket and restaurant chains (for example, Wendy's and Long John Silver) canceled their contracts. Also, a strike of Iceland's scientists union meant no experts would be available to conduct research aboard whaling vessels. In 1989, Iceland announced it would not continue whaling. However, another research proposal was submitted in 1990 and later rejected by the IWC Scientific Committee.[23][24]

In 1991, Iceland threatened to leave the IWC after its request to take 92 fin and 158 minke whales was denied as premature. Fisheries Minister Þorsteinn Pálsson claimed the IWC had abandoned all interest in exploiting whales giving Iceland the right to withdraw. Iceland left the International Whaling Commission in 1992.[25]

Recommencement

Outside of the IWC, Iceland could not simply restart its whaling industry. Past resolutions required IWC nations, including Japan, to refrain from trade in whale products and whaling equipment with non-members. In 2001, Iceland made its first attempt to rejoin the International Whaling Commission with one condition: a reservation to the global moratorium on commercial whaling that would allow Iceland to hunt for commercial purposes despite its acceptance of the ban in 1982. However, the Commission voted against Iceland (19-0-3) with 16 nations refusing to participate due to disagreement over the legality of the vote and Iceland's request. Instead, Iceland was admitted as an observer following a ruling by the Chairman and a second vote.[26][27][28]

The Commission does not accept Iceland's reservation regarding paragraph 10(e) of the Schedule (i.e. that Iceland is not bound by paragraph 10(e) of the Schedule, as reflected in its instrument of adherence dated 8 June 2001.) [27]

Iceland made two additional attempts to rejoin the IWC in 2002. At the annual meeting in May, disagreement continued over Iceland's reservation to the moratorium. As a result, a 25-20 vote upheld the decision that Iceland should participate only as an observer. Iceland asserted the vote was illegal and left the meeting.[29]

At a 2002 special meeting of the IWC, which some members did not attend, Iceland's request and reservation were once again brought before the commission. However, Iceland modified its reservation to specify a time-limit prior to the resumption of any commercial whaling under objection to the moratorium. In the votes that followed, the Commission first voted 18-18 to uphold the same process from previous meetings. The next vote upheld the Chairman's ruling that Iceland should be allowed to vote, 18-18 once again. Finally, the vote to uphold previous decisions to deny Iceland's reservation was defeated with 18 in favor and 19 opposed. Iceland was the deciding vote in its own favor as it rejoined the IWC. Half of the attending nations formally objected to the reservation.[26][30][31]

Notwithstanding this, the Government of Iceland will not authorize whaling for commercial purposes by Icelandic vessels before 2006 and, thereafter, will not authorize such whaling while progress is being made in negotiations within the IWC on the RMS. This does not apply, however, in case of the so-called moratorium on whaling for commercial purposes, contained in paragraph 10(e) of the Schedule not being lifted within a reasonable time after the completion of the RMS. Under no circumstances will whaling for commercial purposes be authorized without a sound scientific basis and an effective management and enforcement scheme.[31]

In 2003, Iceland proposed to resume research whaling after a 14-year interruption. The proposed quota would consist of 100 minke whales, and 100 fin and 50 sei whales (both endangered species). The study would examine the eating habits of whales in Icelandic waters. The Federation of Icelandic Fishing Vessel Owners claimed whales had reduced local cod stocks by 10-20 percent. However, environmental groups disputed the figures and asserted that fish stocks had actually been reduced by commercial overfishing.[32]

The IWC voted 21-16 requesting Iceland reconsider the proposal. IWC resolution 2003-2 noted the potential threat to Iceland's sei whale stocks, recognized the existence of previously collected feeding data and called upon both Iceland and Japan to refrain from continued lethal research.[33][34]

Britain responded by leading 23 countries in a formal protest against the resumption of Icelandic research whaling.[35][36] Representatives of Iceland's tourism industry also announced their opposition and concerns over the potential negative effect of boycotts.[37] However, polls within Iceland showed popular support for the whaling industry.[32]

Iceland's research whaling program continued from 2003 to 2007 taking a total of 200 minke whales.[38]

Commercial whaling

Minke whale meat kebabs, Reykjavik

In October 2006, the Icelandic government issued licenses for a commercial whale hunt in addition to the continuing scientific program.[39] Iceland had pledged not to resume commercial whaling until 2006 when presumably talks about sustainable whaling would be completed. The talks had not come to a resolution thereafter, and instead stalled due to the differences between those who want to resume whaling and those who do not.

Over the twelve-month period ending in August 2007, Icelandic whalers were authorized by the Icelandic government to hunt and sell 30 minke whales and 9 fin whales.[40] Iceland resumed commercial whaling on 21 October 2006 after Icelandic whalers caught a Fin Whale.[41] Iceland has an exemption to the moratorium through the reservation made in 2002.

Twenty-five nations delivered a formal diplomatic protest (called a "demarche") to the Icelandic government on 1 November 2006 concerning resumed commercial whaling. The protest was led by the UK and signed by nations including the United States, Australia, Brazil, France, Germany, Finland and Sweden.[42]

Kristján Loftsson, owner of the whaling company Hvalur (Icelandic for Whale), which had had to diversify from its main industry for the preceding 20 years, stated that there is no reason they can't continue hunting whales for eternity by sustainable management of the hunting. Loftsson also indicated that he planned to export the meat to Japan as neither Iceland or Japan are subject to a trade ban, although Claire Sterling of the International Fund for Animal Welfare said that Japan has officially stated that it would not be buying Icelandic whale meat.[43] As Japan does not have any laws against importing whale meat it would not hinder such an import.

After a brief suspension of whaling activities, commercial hunting resumed in May 2008, when a new license was granted. The minke catch in 2006 and 2007 was all sold. The head of the Icelandic minke whaling association was hoping for a quota of around 100 minkes in 2008.[44] Whaling was authorized to continue in 2009, but the new Fisheries Minister and leader of the Left-Green Movement Steingrímur J. Sigfússon said that there was no guarantee that whaling would continue in the long-term under the new government.[45]

In 2009 Hvalur H/F caught 125 fin whales and planned to export up to 1,500 tonnes of whalemeat to Japan. The fin whale is globally listed as an endangered species.[46]

In 2010, Iceland's proposed quota in killing fin whales was much larger than the amount of whale meat the Japanese market could absorb. However, in negotiations with Marc Wall, Economic Minister-Counselor at the US embassy in Tokyo, Jun Yamashita of the Japanese Fisheries Agencies rejected a proposal to suggest to Iceland to reduce the number of killed fin whales to a more reasonable number.[47]

In March 2010, environmental organizations accused Iceland of illegally exporting whale meal to Denmark and Latvia. The Icelandic government later stated several shipments of fish meal were incorrectly labeled as whale meal.[48][49] Then in April, 15 Greenpeace activists chained themselves to the mooring lines of the container ship NYK Orion in Rotterdam. The action was undertaken to stop a shipment of endangered fin whale meat from Iceland, destined for Japan. The activists unchained themselves after the meat was voluntarily unloaded by the shipping company.[50] Hvalur shipped more than 600 tons of Fin whale meat to Japan in the first 9 months of 2010.[51]

In November 2010, U.S. Commerce Secretary Gary Locke issued a statement criticizing Iceland for killing 273 fin whales in two years in defiance of the moratorium on commercial whaling.[52]

"The United States strongly opposes Iceland’s defiance of the commercial whaling ban. We urge Iceland to cease international trade of whale meat and work with the international community to safeguard whale species. It is troubling that Iceland continues to pursue commercial whaling outside the boundaries of the IWC, without member oversight or analysis by the Commission’s scientific committee." [52]


U.S. Commerce Secretary Gary Locke

Iceland's return to commercial whaling was announced on May 27, 2013, as Kristján Loftsson stated that his two whaling vessels would become operational again in June 2013. Up to 184 endangered fin whales will be hunted over the northern summer of 2013. [53]

Production

Icelandic whaling can be divided among two producers according to the types of whales they hunt in the North Atlantic. The company Hvalur H/F hunts Fin whales, mainly for international export. Others hunt smaller minke whales for domestic consumption.

Hvalur H/F: Fin whaling

The Icelandic company Hvalur H/F dates back to 1948 when it was established by the father of its current CEO, Kristján Loftsson. Loftsson first participated in the family whaling business in 1956 at the age of 13 as a scout on his father's boat.[54]

"Whales are just another fish for me, an abundant marine resource, nothing else." [54]


Kristján Loftsson

The company owns four catcher ships, although only two are currently in service, named Hvalur 6, 7, 8, and 9. When whales are spotted the catcher ships will engage in pursuit. A 90mm cannon with a grenade tipped harpoon is fired at the target whale. A rope is trailed from the harpoon in order to prevent the whale from being lost.[54]

Each caught whale is secured to the side of a harpoon ship with rope and later towed to a shore station located at Hvalfjörður. Once at the shore station, ropes are used to winch the carcass ashore where workers use specialized tools to butcher the whale.

The fin whale meat is exported to Japan. However, as a result of damage Japan sustained during the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, Hvalur H/F temporarily suspended hunting and work at the shore station.[55] It had been resumed as of July 2013.

Minke whaling

The Hrefnuveiðimenn ehf (Icelandic Minke Whalers Association) and another whaling company, Útgerðarfélagið Fjörður ehf, carry out the coastal hunting of minke whales for domestic consumption.[56]

Although the minke whaling vessels also use harpoon cannons, due to the smaller size of minke whales, the boats are able to haul a caught whale on deck where the crew will butcher the animal at sea.

"We will not be exporting any minke whale meat for the time being, but hope to do so in the future. We are still building our company up and to export all the whale meat immediately was simply too much to take on." [57]


Gunnar Bergmann Jónsson, managing director of Hrefnuveiðimenn ehf

Minke whale meat is sold in restaurants and markets within Iceland. A large percentage of the whale meat is actually eaten by tourists.[58][59]

Scientific permit catches

Whales taken under IWC special permit[60]
Year Fin Whale Sei Whale Minke Whale Total
1986 76 40 0 116
1987 80 20 0 100
1988 68 10 0 78
1989 68 0 0 68
... 0 0 0 0
2003 0 0 37 37
2004 0 0 25 25
2005 0 0 39 39
2006 0 0 60 60
2007 0 0 39 39

Notes and references

  1. ↑ "Saving the Whales, Again". Los Angeles Times. 2006-10-21. Retrieved 2006-12-04.
  2. 1 2 3 "History of Whaling". The Húsavík Whale Museum. Retrieved May 16, 2010.
  3. ↑ "Modern Whaling". The Húsavík Whale Museum. Retrieved May 16, 2010.
  4. ↑ Ellis, Richard (1999). Men and Whales. The Lyons Press. pp. 39–42. ISBN 978-1-55821-696-9.
  5. ↑ Kraus, Scott D.; Rolland, Rosalind (2007). The urban whale: North Atlantic right whales at the crossroads. Harvard University Press. p. 45. ISBN 978-0-674-02327-7.
  6. 1 2 3 4 Ellis, Richard (1999). Men and Whales. The Lyons Press. p. 471. ISBN 978-1-55821-696-9.
  7. ↑ Tonnessen, Johan; Johnsen, Arne (1982). The history of modern whaling. University of California Press. pp. 19–22. ISBN 978-0-520-03973-5.
  8. ↑ Tonnessen, Johan; Johnsen, Arne (1982). The history of modern whaling. University of California Press. pp. 35 & 75. ISBN 978-0-520-03973-5.
  9. ↑ Tonnessen, Johan; Johnsen, Arne (1982). The history of modern whaling. University of California Press. pp. 75–77. ISBN 978-0-520-03973-5.
  10. ↑ Tonnessen, Johan; Johnsen, Arne (1982). The history of modern whaling. University of California Press. pp. 77–79. ISBN 978-0-520-03973-5.
  11. ↑ Tonnessen, Johan; Johnsen, Arne (1982). The history of modern whaling. University of California Press. p. 81. ISBN 978-0-520-03973-5.
  12. 1 2 Tonnessen, Johan; Johnsen, Arne (1982). The history of modern whaling. University of California Press. p. 82. ISBN 978-0-520-03973-5.
  13. 1 2 3 Ellis, Richard (1999). Men and Whales. The Lyons Press. p. 472. ISBN 978-1-55821-696-9.
  14. ↑ Tonnessen, Johan; Johnsen, Arne (1982). The history of modern whaling. University of California Press. p. 646. ISBN 978-0-520-03973-5.
  15. 1 2 http://www.iwcoffice.org/commission/convention.htm
  16. ↑ Tonnessen, Johan; Johnsen, Arne (1982). The history of modern whaling. University of California Press. p. 100. ISBN 978-0-520-03973-5.
  17. 1 2 3 4 Darby, Andrew (2007). Harpoon: into the heart of whaling. Allen & Unwin. pp. 179–180. ISBN 978-1-74114-611-0
  18. 1 2 Day, David (1987). The Whale War. Taylor & Francis. pp. 29–32. ISBN 978-0-7102-1186-6
  19. ↑ Darby, Andrew (2007). Harpoon: into the heart of whaling. Allen & Unwin. pp. 125–126. ISBN 978-1-74114-611-0
  20. 1 2 3 Ellis, Richard (1999). Men and Whales. The Lyons Press. pp. 473–474. ISBN 978-1-55821-696-9.
  21. ↑ Day, David (1987). The Whale War. Taylor & Francis. p. 70. ISBN 978-0-7102-1186-6
  22. ↑ http://www.nocompromise.org/issues/28sinkingwhalers.html
  23. 1 2 Day, David (1987). The Whale War. Taylor & Francis. pp. 125–126. ISBN 978-0-7102-1186-6
  24. 1 2 Ellis, Richard (1999). Men and Whales. The Lyons Press. pp. 474–476. ISBN 978-1-55821-696-9.
  25. ↑ MacKenzie, Debora (February 15, 1992). "Iceland goes it alone on whaling". New Scientist. Retrieved April 20, 2010.
  26. 1 2 Darby, Andrew (2007). Harpoon: into the heart of whaling. Allen & Unwin. pp. 187–188. ISBN 978-1-74114-611-0
  27. 1 2 "2001 Meeting: Final press release from The International Whaling Commission's 53rd annual meeting in London, UK 2001". International Whaling Commission. May 5, 2004. Retrieved April 24, 2010.
  28. ↑ "Iceland timeline". BBC News. April 21, 2010. Retrieved April 24, 2010.
  29. ↑ "2002 Meeting: Final press release from The International Whaling Commission's 54th annual meeting in Shimonoseki, Japan 2002". International Whaling Commission. May 5, 2004. Retrieved April 24, 2010.
  30. ↑ "2002 Special Meeting: Final press release from the International Whaling Commission's Special meeting in Cambridge, UK 2002". International Whaling Commission. May 5, 2004. Retrieved April 24, 2010.
  31. 1 2 "Iceland and her re-adherence to the Convention after leaving in 1992". International Whaling Commission. May 5, 2004. Retrieved April 24, 2010.
  32. 1 2 "Iceland to resume whaling". CNN. August 16, 2003. Retrieved May 16, 2010.
  33. ↑ "Resolution 2003-2: Resolution on Whaling under Special Permit". International Whaling Commission. May 5, 2004. Retrieved May 16, 2010.
  34. ↑ Brown, Paul (August 7, 2003). "Iceland to kill whales for science". London: The Guardian. Retrieved May 16, 2010.
  35. ↑ "International protest over Iceland whaling". The Sydney Morning Herald. September 12, 2003. Retrieved May 16, 2010.
  36. ↑ "Iceland's whale hunting makes waves with critics". The Christian Science Monitor. September 19, 2003. Retrieved May 16, 2010.
  37. ↑ Walton, Doreen (August 15, 2003). "Iceland divided over whaling". BBC News. Retrieved May 16, 2010.
  38. ↑ "Catches taken: Under Scientific Permit". International Whaling Commission. January 26, 2010. Retrieved May 16, 2010.
  39. ↑ "Iceland Resumes Commercial Whaling". Discovery.com News. 2006-10-17. Retrieved 2006-10-17.
  40. ↑ "Quota set on whaling". Reuters. 2006-10-17. Retrieved 2006-12-04.
  41. ↑ "Iceland 'breaks ban on whaling'". BBC News. 2006-10-22. Retrieved 2006-12-04.
  42. ↑ "Iceland rapped over whale hunting". BBC News. 2006-11-01. Retrieved 2006-11-02.
  43. ↑ Charles Clover (2006-11-06). "Whaling fleet boss to defy ban and sell to Japanese". London: Telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 2006-11-06.
  44. ↑ "Iceland whaling go-ahead 'likely'". BBC News. March 13, 2008.
  45. ↑ Omar R. Valdimarsson (2009-02-18). "Iceland to allow whaling in 2009". Reuters UK. Retrieved 2009-02-21.
  46. ↑ Richard Black (2009-09-25). "Iceland plans big whalemeat trade". BBC. Retrieved 2009-09-28.
  47. ↑ "Japan receptive to further engagement on whaling (Wikileaks telegram 10TOKYO171)". U.S. Department of State. 27 January 2010. Retrieved 3 January 2011.
  48. ↑ Paul Nikolov (2010-03-19). "Iceland Accused of Illegal Whale Meat Exports". Grapevine. Retrieved 2010-11-30.
  49. ↑ Andrew Revkin (2010-03-19). "Could Icelandic Whale Make Its Way Into Danish Pork?". New York Times. Retrieved 2010-11-30.
  50. ↑ "Greenpeace Blocks Whale Meat Shipment in Rotterdam". Environment News Service. 2010-04-02. Retrieved 2010-11-30.
  51. ↑ "Iceland firm ships more whale meat". Japan Times. 2010-11-07. Retrieved 2010-11-30.
  52. 1 2 "Secretary Locke Criticizes Escalation of Icelandic Whaling" (Press release). US Department of Commerce. 2010-11-23. Retrieved 2010-11-30.
  53. ↑ The Times (27 May 2013). "Iceland to return to whale cull". The Australian. Retrieved 27 May 2013.
  54. 1 2 3 Chaon, Anne (June 23, 2010). "For Iceland's whaling king, they're 'just another fish'". AFP. Retrieved September 4, 2011.
  55. ↑ Fontaine, Paul (May 10, 2011). "Whale Hunting Delayed Until Summer's End". The Reykjavik Grapevine. Retrieved September 4, 2011.
  56. ↑ "Hrefnuveiðum completed - 60 animals caught". Morgunblaðið. September 20, 2010. Retrieved September 4, 2011.
  57. ↑ Veal, Lowana (April 16, 2010). "Whaling Profitable but Bad for Iceland's Image". Terraviva - IPS Inter Press Service. Retrieved September 4, 2011.
  58. ↑ "Minkes Chase Mackerel, Confuse Icelandic Whalers". Iceland Review. August 25, 2011. Retrieved September 4, 2011.
  59. ↑ "Whale Wars in Iceland". Discovery News. July 20, 2011. Retrieved September 4, 2011.
  60. ↑ "Catches under Permit". International Whaling Commission. Retrieved 2008-10-24.

See also

External links

Further reading

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