x86 assembly language

For a specific list of x86 assembly language instructions, see x86 instruction listings.

x86 assembly language is a family of backward-compatible assembly languages, which provide some level of compatibility all the way back to the Intel 8008. x86 assembly languages are used to produce object code for the x86 class of processors. Like all assembly languages, it uses short mnemonics to represent the fundamental instructions that the CPU in a computer can understand and follow. Compilers sometimes produce assembly code as an intermediate step when translating a high level program into machine code. Regarded as a programming language, assembly coding is machine-specific and low level. Assembly languages are more typically used for detailed and time critical applications such as small real-time embedded systems or operating system kernels and device drivers.

History

The Intel 8086 and 8088 were the first CPUs to have an instruction set that is now commonly referred to as x86. These 16-bit CPUs were an evolution of the previous generation of 8-bit CPUs such as the 8080, inheriting many characteristics and instructions, extended for the 16-bit era. The 8086 and 8088 both used a 20-bit address bus and 16-bit internal registers but while the 8086 had a 16-bit data bus, the 8088, intended as a low cost option for embedded applications and small computers, had an 8-bit data bus. The x86 assembly language covers the many different versions of CPUs that followed: from Intel, the 80186, 80188, 80286, 80386, 80486, Pentium, Pentium Pro, and so on, as well as non-Intel CPUs from AMD and Cyrix such as the 5x86 and K6 processors and the NEC V20 (although these mostly Intel-compatible CPUs add instructions which might not strictly be considered part of the x86 assembly language, much as the instructions that Zilog added to the Z80 to form its superset of the Intel 8080 instruction set would not be considered part of the i8080 assembly language.) (AMD also manufactured Intel 8086-family CPUs prior to the 80386 under a second-source contract, as did some other semiconductor manufacturers.) The term x86 applies to any CPU which can run the original assembly language. (Usually it will run at least some of the extensions too.)

The modern x86 instruction set is a superset of 8086 instructions and a series of extensions to this instruction set that began with the Intel 8008 microprocessor. Nearly full binary backward compatibility exists between the Intel 8086 chip through to the current generation of x86 processors, although certain exceptions do exist, mostly in the detailed semantics of infrequently-used instructions (such as POP SP) or the handling of opcodes that are undocumented or undefined on the 8086. In practice it is typical to use instructions which will execute on either anything later than an Intel 80386 (or fully compatible clone) processor or else anything later than an Intel Pentium (or compatible clone) processor, but in recent years various operating systems and application software have begun to require more modern processors or at least support for later specific extensions to the instruction set (e.g. MMX, 3DNow!, SSE/SSE2/SSE3).

Mnemonics and opcodes

Further information: x86 instruction listings

Each x86 assembly instruction is represented by a mnemonic which, often combined with one or more operands, translates to one or more bytes called an opcode; the NOP instruction translates to 0x90, for instance and the HLT instruction translates to 0xF4. There are potential opcodes with no documented mnemonic which different processors may interpret differently, making a program using them behave inconsistently or even generate an exception on some processors. These opcodes often turn up in code writing competitions as a way to make the code smaller, faster, more elegant or just show off the author's prowess.

Syntax

x86 assembly language has two main syntax branches: Intel syntax, originally used for documentation of the x86 platform, and AT&T syntax.[1] Intel syntax is dominant in the MS-DOS and Windows world, and AT&T syntax is dominant in the Unix world, since Unix was created at AT&T Bell Labs.[2] Here is a summary of the main differences between Intel syntax and AT&T syntax:

AT&T Intel
Parameter order Source before the destination. 
mov $5, %eax
Destination before source. 
mov eax, 5
Parameter size Mnemonics are suffixed with a letter indicating the size of the operands: q for qword, l for long (dword), w for word, and b for byte.[1] 
addl $4, %esp
Derived from the name of the register that is used (e.g. rax, eax, ax, al imply q, l, w, b, respectively). 
add esp, 4
Sigils Immediate values prefixed with a "$", registers prefixed with a "%".[1] The assembler automatically detects the type of symbols; i.e., whether they are registers, constants or something else.
Effective addresses General syntax of DISP(BASE,INDEX,SCALE). Example: 
movl mem_location(%ebx,%ecx,4), %eax
Arithmetic expressions in square brackets; additionally, size keywords like byte, word, or dword have to be used if the size cannot be determined from the operands.[1] Example: 
mov eax, [ebx + ecx*4 + mem_location]

Many x86 assemblers use Intel syntax, including NASM, FASM, MASM, TASM, and YASM. GAS has supported both syntaxes since version 2.10 via the .intel_syntax directive.[1][3][4]

Registers

Further information: X86 architecture#x86 registers

x86 processors have a collection of registers available to be used as stores for binary data. Collectively the data and address registers are called the general registers. Each register has a special purpose in addition to what they can all do:

Along with the general registers there are additionally the:

The IP register points to the memory offset of the next instruction in the code segment (it points to the first byte of the instruction). The IP register cannot be accessed by the programmer directly.

The x86 registers can be used by using the MOV instructions. For example, in Intel syntax:

mov ax, 1234h / copies the value 1234hex (4660d) into register AX
mov bx, ax / copies the value of the AX register into the BX register

Segmented addressing

The x86 architecture in real and virtual 8086 mode uses a process known as segmentation to address memory, not the flat memory model used in many other environments. Segmentation involves composing a memory address from two parts, a segment and an offset; the segment points to the beginning of a 64 KB group of addresses and the offset determines how far from this beginning address the desired address is. In segmented addressing, two registers are required for a complete memory address: one to hold the segment, the other to hold the offset. In order to translate back into a flat address, the segment value is shifted four bits left (equivalent to multiplication by 24 or 16) then added to the offset to form the full address, which allows breaking the 64k barrier through clever choice of addresses, though it makes programming considerably more complex.

In real mode/protected only, for example, if DS contains the hexadecimal number 0xDEAD and DX contains the number 0xCAFE they would together point to the memory address 0xDEAD * 0x10 + 0xCAFE = 0xEB5CE. Therefore, the CPU can address up to 1,048,576 bytes (1 MB) in real mode. By combining segment and offset values we find a 20-bit address.

The original IBM PC restricted programs to 640 KB but an expanded memory specification was used to implement a bank switching scheme that fell out of use when later operating systems, such as Windows, used the larger address ranges of newer processors and implemented their own virtual memory schemes.

Protected mode, starting with the Intel 80286, was utilized by OS/2. Several shortcomings, such as the inability to access the BIOS and the inability to switch back to real mode without resetting the processor, prevented widespread usage.[5] The 80286 was also still limited to addressing memory in 16-bit segments, meaning only 216 bytes (64 kilobytes) could be accessed at a time. To access the extended functionality of the 80286, the operating system would set the processor into protected mode, enabling 24-bit addressing and thus 224 bytes of memory (16 megabytes).

In protected mode, the segment selector can be broken down into three parts: a 13-bit index, a Table Indicator bit that determines whether the entry is in the GDT or LDT and a 2-bit Requested Privilege Level; see x86 memory segmentation.

When referring to an address with a segment and an offset the notation of segment:offset is used, so in the above example the flat address 0xEB5CE can be written as 0xDEAD:0xCAFE or as a segment and offset register pair; DS:DX.

There are some special combinations of segment registers and general registers that point to important addresses:

The Intel 80386 featured three operating modes: real mode, protected mode and virtual mode. The protected mode which debuted in the 80286 was extended to allow the 80386 to address up to 4 GB of memory, the all new virtual 8086 mode (VM86) made it possible to run one or more real mode programs in a protected environment which largely emulated real mode, though some programs were not compatible (typically as a result of memory addressing tricks or using unspecified op-codes).

The 32-bit flat memory model of the 80386's extended protected mode may be the most important feature change for the x86 processor family until AMD released x86-64 in 2003, as it helped drive large scale adoption of Windows 3.1 (which relied on protected mode) since Windows could now run many applications at once, including DOS applications, by using virtual memory and simple multitasking.

Execution modes

Further information: X86 architecture

The x86 processors support five modes of operation for x86 code, Real Mode, Protected Mode, Long Mode, Virtual 86 Mode, and System Management Mode, in which some instructions are available and others are not. A 16-bit subset of instructions are available on the 16-bit x86 processors, which are the 8086, 8088, 80186, 80188, and 80286. These instructions are available in real mode on all x86 processors, and in 16-bit protected mode (80286 onwards), additional instructions relating to protected mode are available. On the 80386 and later, 32-bit instructions (including later extensions) are also available in all modes, including real mode; on these CPUs, V86 mode and 32-bit protected mode are added, with additional instructions provided in these modes to manage their features. SMM, with some of its own special instructions, is available on some Intel i386SL, i486 and later CPUs. Finally, in long mode (AMD Opteron onwards), 64-bit instructions, and more registers, are also available. The instruction set is similar in each mode but memory addressing and word size vary, requiring different programming strategies.

The modes in which x86 code can be executed in are:

Switching modes

The processor runs in real mode immediately after power on, so an operating system kernel, or other program, must explicitly switch to another mode if it wishes to run in anything but real mode. Switching modes is accomplished by modifying certain bits of the processor's control registers after some preparation, and some additional setup may be required after the switch.

Instruction types

In general, the features of the modern x86 instruction set are:

Stack instructions

The x86 architecture has hardware support for an execution stack mechanism. Instructions such as push, pop, call and ret are used with the properly set up stack to pass parameters, to allocate space for local data, and to save and restore call-return points. The ret size instruction is very useful for implementing space efficient (and fast) calling conventions where the callee is responsible for reclaiming stack space occupied by parameters.

When setting up a stack frame to hold local data of a recursive procedure there are several choices; the high level enter instruction (introduced with the 80386) takes a procedure-nesting-depth argument as well as a local size argument, and may be faster than more explicit manipulation of the registers (such as push bp ; mov bp, sp ; sub sp, size). Whether it is faster or slower depends on the particular x86-processor implementation as well as the calling convention used by the compiler, programmer or particular program code; most x86 code is intended to run on x86-processors from several manufacturers and on different technological generations of processors, which implies highly varying microarchitectures and microcode solutions as well as varying gate- and transistor-level design choices.

The full range of addressing modes (including immediate and base+offset) even for instructions such as push and pop, makes direct usage of the stack for integer, floating point and address data simple, as well as keeping the ABI specifications and mechanisms relatively simple compared to some RISC architectures (require more explicit call stack details).

Integer ALU instructions

x86 assembly has the standard mathematical operations, add, sub, mul, with idiv; the logical operators and, or, xor, neg; bitshift arithmetic and logical, sal/sar, shl/shr; rotate with and without carry, rcl/rcr, rol/ror, a complement of BCD arithmetic instructions, aaa, aad, daa and others.

Floating-point instructions

x86 assembly language includes instructions for a stack-based floating-point unit (FPU). The FPU was an optional separate coprocessor for the 8086 through the 80386, it was an on-chip option for the 80486 series, and it is a standard feature in every Intel x86 CPU since the 80486, starting with the Pentium. The FPU instructions include addition, subtraction, negation, multiplication, division, remainder, square roots, integer truncation, fraction truncation, and scale by power of two. The operations also include conversion instructions, which can load or store a value from memory in any of the following formats: binary-coded decimal, 32-bit integer, 64-bit integer, 32-bit floating-point, 64-bit floating-point or 80-bit floating-point (upon loading, the value is converted to the currently used floating-point mode). x86 also includes a number of transcendental functions, including sine, cosine, tangent, arctangent, exponentiation with the base 2 and logarithms to bases 2, 10, or e.

The stack register to stack register format of the instructions is usually fop st, st(n) or fop st(n), st, where st is equivalent to st(0), and st(n) is one of the 8 stack registers (st(0), st(1), ..., st(7)). Like the integers, the first operand is both the first source operand and the destination operand. fsubr and fdivr should be singled out as first swapping the source operands before performing the subtraction or division. The addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, store and comparison instructions include instruction modes that pop the top of the stack after their operation is complete. So, for example, faddp st(1), st performs the calculation st(1) = st(1) + st(0), then removes st(0) from the top of stack, thus making what was the result in st(1) the top of the stack in st(0).

SIMD instructions

Modern x86 CPUs contain SIMD instructions, which largely perform the same operation in parallel on many values encoded in a wide SIMD register. Various instruction technologies support different operations on different register sets, but taken as complete whole (from MMX to SSE4.2) they include general computations on integer or floating point arithmetic (addition, subtraction, multiplication, shift, minimization, maximization, comparison, division or square root). So for example, paddw mm0, mm1 performs 4 parallel 16-bit (indicated by the w) integer adds (indicated by the padd) of mm0 values to mm1 and stores the result in mm0. Streaming SIMD Extensions or SSE also includes a floating point mode in which only the very first value of the registers is actually modified (expanded in SSE2). Some other unusual instructions have been added including a sum of absolute differences (used for motion estimation in video compression, such as is done in MPEG) and a 16-bit multiply accumulation instruction (useful for software-based alpha-blending and digital filtering). SSE (since SSE3) and 3DNow! extensions include addition and subtraction instructions for treating paired floating point values like complex numbers.

These instruction sets also include numerous fixed sub-word instructions for shuffling, inserting and extracting the values around within the registers. In addition there are instructions for moving data between the integer registers and XMM (used in SSE)/FPU (used in MMX) registers.

Data manipulation instructions

The x86 processor also includes complex addressing modes for addressing memory with an immediate offset, a register, a register with an offset, a scaled register with or without an offset, and a register with an optional offset and another scaled register. So for example, one can encode mov eax, [Table + ebx + esi*4] as a single instruction which loads 32 bits of data from the address computed as (Table + ebx + esi * 4) offset from the ds selector, and stores it to the eax register. In general x86 processors can load and use memory matched to the size of any register it is operating on. (The SIMD instructions also include half-load instructions.)

The x86 instruction set includes string load, store, move, scan and compare instructions (lods, stos, movs, scas and cmps) which perform each operation to a specified size (b for 8-bit byte, w for 16-bit word, d for 32-bit double word) then increments/decrements (depending on DF, direction flag) the implicit address register (si for lods, di for stos and scas, and both for movs and cmps). For the load, store and scan operations, the implicit target/source/comparison register is in the al, ax or eax register (depending on size). The implicit segment registers used are ds for si and es for di. The cx or ecx register is used as a decrementing counter, and the operation stops when the counter reaches zero or (for scans and comparisons) when inequality is detected.

The stack is implemented with an implicitly decrementing (push) and incrementing (pop) stack pointer. In 16-bit mode, this implicit stack pointer is addressed as SS:[SP], in 32-bit mode it is SS:[ESP], and in 64-bit mode it is [RSP]. The stack pointer actually points to the last value that was stored, under the assumption that its size will match the operating mode of the processor (i.e., 16, 32, or 64 bits) to match the default width of the push/pop/call/ret instructions. Also included are the instructions enter and leave which reserve and remove data from the top of the stack while setting up a stack frame pointer in bp/ebp/rbp. However, direct setting, or addition and subtraction to the sp/esp/rsp register is also supported, so the enter/leave instructions are generally unnecessary.

This code in the beginning of a function:

 push    ebp       ; save calling function's stack frame (ebp)
 mov     ebp, esp  ; make a new stack frame on top of our caller's stack
 sub     esp, 4    ; allocate 4 bytes of stack space for this function's local variables

...is functionally equivalent to just:

enter   4, 0

Other instructions for manipulating the stack include pushf/popf for storing and retrieving the (E)FLAGS register. The pusha/popa instructions will store and retrieve the entire integer register state to and from the stack.

Values for a SIMD load or store are assumed to be packed in adjacent positions for the SIMD register and will align them in sequential little-endian order. Some SSE load and store instructions require 16-byte alignment to function properly. The SIMD instruction sets also include "prefetch" instructions which perform the load but do not target any register, used for cache loading. The SSE instruction sets also include non-temporal store instructions which will perform stores straight to memory without performing a cache allocate if the destination is not already cached (otherwise it will behave like a regular store.)

Most generic integer and floating point (but no SIMD) instructions can use one parameter as a complex address as the second source parameter. Integer instructions can also accept one memory parameter as a destination operand.

Program flow

The x86 assembly has an unconditional jump operation, jmp, which can take an immediate address, a register or an indirect address as a parameter (note that most RISC processors only support a link register or short immediate displacement for jumping).

Also supported are several conditional jumps, including jz (jump on zero), jnz (jump on non-zero), jg (jump on greater than, signed), jl (jump on less than, signed), ja (jump on above/greater than, unsigned), jb (jump on below/less than, unsigned). These conditional operations are based on the state of specific bits in the (E)FLAGS register. Many arithmetic and logic operations set, clear or complement these flags depending on their result. The comparison cmp (compare) and test instructions set the flags as if they had performed a subtraction or a bitwise AND operation, respectively, without altering the values of the operands. There are also instructions such as clc (clear carry flag) and cmc (complement carry flag) which work on the flags directly. Floating point comparisons are performed via fcom or ficom instructions which eventually have to be converted to integer flags.

Each jump operation has three different forms, depending on the size of the operand. A short jump uses an 8-bit signed operand, which is a relative offset from the current instruction. A near jump is similar to a short jump but uses a 16-bit signed operand (in real or protected mode) or a 32-bit signed operand (in 32-bit protected mode only). A far jump is one that uses the full segment base:offset value as an absolute address. There are also indirect and indexed forms of each of these.

In addition to the simple jump operations, there are the call (call a subroutine) and ret (return from subroutine) instructions. Before transferring control to the subroutine, call pushes the segment offset address of the instruction following the call onto the stack; ret pops this value off the stack, and jumps to it, effectively returning the flow of control to that part of the program. In the case of a far call, the segment base is pushed following the offset; far ret pops the offset and then the segment base to return.

There are also two similar instructions, int (interrupt), which saves the current (E)FLAGS register value on the stack, then performs a far call, except that instead of an address, it uses an interrupt vector, an index into a table of interrupt handler addresses. Typically, the interrupt handler saves all other CPU registers it uses, unless they are used to return the result of an operation to the calling program (in software called interrupts). The matching return from interrupt instruction is iret, which restores the flags after returning. Soft Interrupts of the type described above are used by some operating systems for system calls, and can also be used in debugging hard interrupt handlers. Hard interrupts are triggered by external hardware events, and must preserve all register values as the state of the currently executing program is unknown. In Protected Mode, interrupts may be set up by the OS to trigger a task switch, which will automatically save all registers of the active task.

Examples

"Hello world!" program for DOS in MASM style assembly

Using interrupt 21h for output – other samples use libc's printf to print to stdout.

.model small
.stack 100h

.data
msg	db	'Hello world!$'

.code
start:
	mov	ah, 09h   ; Display the message
	lea	dx, msg
	int	21h
	mov	ax, 4C00h  ; Terminate the executable
	int	21h

end start

"Hello World!" program for Windows in MASM style assembly

; requires /coff switch on 6.15 and earlier versions
.386
.model small,c
.stack 1000h

.data
msg     db "Hello World!",0

.code
includelib MSVCRT
extrn printf:near
extrn exit:near

public main
main proc
        push    offset msg
        call    printf
        push    0
        call    exit
main endp

end main

"Hello world!" program for Windows in NASM style assembly

; Image base = 0x00400000
%define RVA(x) (x-0x00400000)
section .text
push dword hello
call dword [printf]
push byte +0
call dword [exit]
ret

section .data
hello db "Hello world!"

section .idata
dd RVA(msvcrt_LookupTable)
dd -1
dd 0
dd RVA(msvcrt_string)
dd RVA(msvcrt_imports)
times 5 dd 0 ; ends the descriptor table

msvcrt_string dd "msvcrt.dll", 0
msvcrt_LookupTable:
dd RVA(msvcrt_printf)
dd RVA(msvcrt_exit)
dd 0

msvcrt_imports:
printf dd RVA(msvcrt_printf)
exit dd RVA(msvcrt_exit)
dd 0

msvcrt_printf:
dw 1
dw "printf", 0
msvcrt_exit:
dw 2
dw "exit", 0
dd 0

"Hello world!" program for Linux in NASM style assembly

;
; This program runs in 32-bit protected mode.
;  build: nasm -f elf -F stabs name.asm
;  link:  ld -o name name.o
;
; In 64-bit long mode you can use 64-bit registers (e.g. rax instead of eax, rbx instead of ebx, etc.)
; Also change "-f elf " for "-f elf64" in build command.
;
section .data                           ; section for initialized data
str:     db 'Hello world!', 0Ah         ; message string with new-line char at the end (10 decimal)
str_len: equ $ - str                    ; calcs length of string (bytes) by subtracting the str's start address
                                            ; from this address ($ symbol)

section .text                           ; this is the code section
global _start                           ; _start is the entry point and needs global scope to be 'seen' by the
                                            ; linker --equivalent to main() in C/C++
_start:                                 ; definition of _start procedure begins here
	mov	eax, 4                   ; specify the sys_write function code (from OS vector table)
	mov	ebx, 1                   ; specify file descriptor stdout --in gnu/linux, everything's treated as a file,
                                             ; even hardware devices
	mov	ecx, str                 ; move start _address_ of string message to ecx register
	mov	edx, str_len             ; move length of message (in bytes)
	int	80h                      ; interrupt kernel to perform the system call we just set up -
                                             ; in gnu/linux services are requested through the kernel
	mov	eax, 1                   ; specify sys_exit function code (from OS vector table)
	mov	ebx, 0                   ; specify return code for OS (zero tells OS everything went fine)
	int	80h                      ; interrupt kernel to perform system call (to exit)

"Hello world!" program for Linux in NASM style assembly using the C standard library

;
;  This program runs in 32-bit protected mode.
;  gcc links the standard-C library by default

;  build: nasm -f elf -F stabs name.asm
;  link:  gcc -o name name.o
;
; In 64-bit long mode you can use 64-bit registers (e.g. rax instead of eax, rbx instead of ebx, etc..)
; Also change "-f elf " for "-f elf64" in build command.
;
        global  main                                ;main must be defined as it being compiled against the C-Standard Library
        extern  printf                               ;declares use of external symbol as printf is declared in a different object-module. 
                                                           ;Linker resolves this symbol later.

segment .data                                       ;section for initialized data
	string db 'Hello world!', 0Ah, 0h           ;message string with new-line char (10 decimal) and the NULL terminator
                                                    ;string now refers to the starting address at which 'Hello, World' is stored.

segment .text
main:
        push    string                              ;push the address of first character of string onto stack. This will be argument to printf
        call    printf                              ;calls printf
        add     esp, 4                              ;advances stack-pointer by 4 flushing out the pushed string argument
        ret                                         ;return

"Hello world!" program for 64-bit mode Linux in NASM style assembly

BITS 64

SECTION .data

Hello:		db "Hello world!",10
len_Hello:	equ $-Hello

SECTION .text

global _start

_start:
		mov rax,1			; write syscall (x86_64)
		mov rdi,1			; fd = stdout
		mov rsi,Hello		; *buf = Hello
		mov rdx,len_Hello	; count = len_Hello
		syscall

		mov rax,60			; exit syscall (x86_64)
		mov rdi,0			; status = 0 (exit normally)
		syscall

Using the flags register

Flags are heavily used for comparisons in the x86 architecture. When a comparison is made between two data, the CPU sets the relevant flag or flags. Following this, conditional jump instructions can be used to check the flags and branch to code that should run, e.g.:

	cmp	eax, ebx
	jne	do_something
	; ...
do_something:
	; do something here

Flags are also used in the x86 architecture to turn on and off certain features or execution modes. For example, to disable all maskable interrupts, you can use the instruction:

	cli

The flags register can also be directly accessed. The low 8 bits of the flag register can be loaded into ah using the lahf instruction. The entire flags register can also be moved on and off the stack using the instructions pushf, popf, int (including into) and iret.

Using the instruction pointer register

The instruction pointer is called ip in 16-bit mode, eip in 32-bit mode, and rip in 64-bit mode. The instruction pointer register points to the memory address which the processor will next attempt to execute; it cannot be directly accessed in 16-bit or 32-bit mode, but a sequence like the following can be written to put the address of next_line into eax:

	call	next_line
next_line:
	pop	eax

This sequence of instructions generates position-independent code because call takes an instruction-pointer-relative immediate operand describing the offset in bytes of the target instruction from the next instruction (in this case 0).

Writing to the instruction pointer is simple — a jmp instruction sets the instruction pointer to the target address, so, for example, a sequence like the following will put the contents of eax into eip:

	jmp	eax

In 64-bit mode, instructions can reference data relative to the instruction pointer, so there is less need to copy the value of the instruction pointer to another register.

See also

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 Narayam, Ram (2007-10-17). "Linux assemblers: A comparison of GAS and NASM". Retrieved 2008-07-02.
  2. ↑ "The Creation of Unix".
  3. ↑ Hyde, Randall. "Which Assembler is the Best?". Retrieved 2008-05-18.
  4. ↑ "GNU Assembler News, v2.1 supports Intel syntax". 2008-04-04. Retrieved 2008-07-02.
  5. ↑ Mueller, Scott (March 24, 2006). "P2 (286) Second-Generation Processors". Upgrading and Repairing PCs, 17th Edition (Book) (17 ed.). Que. ISBN 0-7897-3404-4. Retrieved July 2007.

External links

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Manuals

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