African Union Mission to Somalia

African Union Mission in Somalia
Participant in the Somali Civil War

Map of Somalia within the African Union

Map of Somalia within the African Union
Active February 2007 – present
Leaders Lieutenant General Andrew Gutti
Major General Cyprien Hakiza
Headquarters Mogadishu
Area of operations Central and southern Somalia
Originated as IGASOM
Allies

Somalia Federal Government of Somalia

Ahlu Sunna Waljama'a
Raskamboni movement
Opponents

al-Shabaab
ARS (dis)
Hizbul Islam (dis)

Al-Qaeda
Website amisom-au.org

The African Union Mission in Somalia (AMISOM) is an active, regional peacekeeping mission operated by the African Union with the approval of the United Nations in Somalia. It is mandated to support transitional governmental structures, implement a national security plan, train the Somali security forces, and to assist in creating a secure environment for the delivery of humanitarian aid.[1] As part of its duties, AMISOM also supports the Federal Government of Somalia's forces in their battle against Al-Shabaab militants.

AMISOM was created by the African Union's Peace and Security Council on 19 January 2007 with an initial six-month mandate.[2] On 21 February 2007 the United Nations Security Council approved the mission's mandate.[3] Subsequent six-monthly renewals of AMISOM's mandate by the African Union Peace and Security Council have also been authorised by the United Nations Security Council.[4][5]

The duration of AMISOM's mandate has been extended in each period that it has been up for review, lastly in October 2014. The current mandate expires on 30 November 2015. Until that time its maximum allowed strength is 22,126 troops.[6]

In August 2014, the Somali government assisted by AMISOM launched Operation Indian Ocean to clean up the remaining Al-Shabaab-held pockets in the countryside.[7]

Origin of the mission

Burundian troops preparing to deploy to Somalia, 2006

AMISOM replaced and subsumed the IGAD Peace Support Mission in Somalia (IGASOM), which was a proposed Intergovernmental Authority on Development protection and training mission to Somalia approved by the African Union on September 14, 2006.[8] IGASOM was also approved by the United Nations Security Council on December 6, 2006.[9]

IGASOM was originally proposed for immediate implementation in March 2005 to provide peacekeeping forces for the latest phase of the Somali Civil War.[10]

At that time, the Islamic Courts Union (ICU) had not yet taken control of Mogadishu, and most hopes for national unity lay with the Transitional Federal Government (TFG) which had organized in Nairobi, Kenya in 2004 and were planning to established a provisional capital in Baidoa, Bay region, Somalia.

By May 2006, the situation was radically different, as the ICU had recently been engaged by the Alliance for the Restoration of Peace and Counter-Terrorism or ARPCT and was fighting for control of Mogadishu in the Second Battle of Mogadishu. By June, they had established control of the capital. Fighting began to spread to other parts of the nation as the ICU gained ground.

Plans for IGASOM continued, though by July there were indications of opposition from the ICU, who saw the initiative as a US-backed, Western means to curb the growth of their Islamic movement.[11]

Until December 2006, the UN Security Council had imposed an arms embargo on the group,[12] but the embargo was partially lifted and a mandate for IGASOM issued on 6 December 2006 for six months.[13]

On 21 February 2007, the United Nations Security Council authorised the African Union to deploy a peacekeeping mission with a mandate of six months.[3] In March 2007, Ugandan military officials arrived on the ground in Somalia.[14] On 20 August 2007, the United Nations Security Council extended the African Union's authorisation to continue deploying AMISOM for a further six months and requested the Secretary-General to explore the option of replacing AMISOM with a United Nations Peacekeeping Operation to Somalia.[4]

Mission planning

Scope of the mission

An American officer inspecting troops from Sierra Leone prior to deployment to Somalia, 2012

IGASOM was expected to eventually reach 8,000 troops, with an expected cost of $335 million for the first year. According to UN Security Council Resolution 1725, states bordering Somalia would not be eligible to deploy troops under IGASOM. The remaining (non-bordering) IGAD member nations include Sudan, Eritrea, and Uganda. Because of the objection of the burden falling on these three nations alone (and the rivalry between Ethiopia and Eritrea), the mission was expanded to include other Member States of the African Union .

AMISOM has a different composition. As proposed, it is to comprise an initial 3 battalions, growing to a total of 9 battalions of 850 troops each, which would serve for an initial stabilization period of 6 months. The mission was to be modelled after the African Union Mission in Burundi (AMIB).[2]

ICU resistance

As early as March 25, 2005 Sheikh Hassan Dahir Aweys of the Union of Islamic Courts warned any peacekeepers would be unwelcome in the country. He was quoted by the BBC as saying, "We will fight fiercely to the death any intervention force that arrives in Somalia."[15] Yet at the time, the ICU was not the political or military force it was to become later.

Faced with the ascendancy of the ICU after taking over the capital in the Second Battle of Mogadishu between May and June, 2006, UN-watchers were growing concerned with the level of hostility of the ICU towards the proposed IGASOM mission.[11]

Though IGAD and the ICU met and published a cordial and formal communique[16] committing the ICU to the IGAD plans on December 2, by the time United Nations Security Council Resolution 1725 was passed on December 6,[9] the ICU was openly and militantly opposed to peacekeepers entering Somalia, and vowed to treat any peacekeepers as hostile forces. Because of regional divisions, there were also UIC resistance to allowing Ethiopian troops be part of the mission. Ethiopia, for its part, was leery of allowing Eritrean troops to be members of the IGAD peacekeeping force.

In the face of ICU threats, Uganda, the only IGAD members who had openly offered to send forces (a battalion), withdrew in the face of concerns of the present feasibility of the mission.[17][18][19] In Uganda's defense, the crisis does not allow for peacekeepers when there are active hostilities conducted with heavy weapons (see Battle of Baidoa).

On January 1, 2007, after the defeat of the ICU in various battles in December 2006, Uganda again renewed its pledge of a battalion of troops. Between Uganda and Nigeria (which is a Member State of the African Union, but not of IGAD), there was a pledge of a total of 8,000 peacekeepers.[20] Ghana, Rwanda and Tanzania were reported to be considering sending forces.[21]

Gathering support

Burundian soldiers training before deployment to Somalia, 2012

Following the defeat of the Islamic Courts Union in December 2006 – January 2007 the international community began to gather both fiscal commitments as well as military forces for the mission. Nations of the African Union (AU) outside the IGAD community were drawn on to provide support.

On January 17, 2007, the US ambassador to Kenya, Michael Ranneberger, said the US pledged $40 million to support the deployment of a peacekeeping force for Somalia.[22] By January 20, the European Union followed with a pledge of 15 million euros.[23]

On January 19, 2007 the mission was formally defined and approved by the African Union at the 69th meeting of the Peace and Security Council.[2]

On January 22, 2007 Malawi agreed to send a half-battalion to a battalion (ranging widely anywhere between approximately 400 to 1,200 troops) for a peacekeeping mission to Somalia.[24]

On January 24, 2007 Nigeria pledged a battalion (a force between 770 and 1,100 troops) to join the Somali peacekeeping mission.[25]

On February 1, 2007 Burundi committed to the peacekeeping mission, pledging up to 1,000 troops.[26] By March 27, it was confirmed that 1700 Burundian peacekeepers would be sent to Somalia.[27]

On February 2, 2007, the United Nations Security Council welcomed the advent of the African Union and IGAD-led peacekeeping mission.[28]

On February 5, 2007 Tanzania offered to train Somali government troops, but not to deploy peacekeepers.[29]

On February 9, 2007 a gathering of 800 Somali demonstrators in north Mogadishu, where Islamist support was strongest, burned U.S., Ethiopian, and Ugandan flags in protest of the proposed peacekeeping mission. A masked representative of the resistance group, the Popular Resistance Movement in the Land of the Two Migrations, said Ethiopian troops would be attacked in their hotels; the same group had made a video warning peacekeepers to avoid coming to Somalia.[30] By this date, Uganda, Nigeria, Ghana, Malawi and Burundi had committed to the peacekeeping mission, but the total force was about half of the proposed 8,000-strong force.[31] Uganda had pledged 1,400 troops and some armored vehicles for a mission lasting up to 9 months, and the AU had pledged $11.6 million.[32]

On February 16, 2007 Uganda announced it would deploy 1,500 well-seasoned troops as early as Saturday, February 17, 2007 under the command of Major General Levi Karuhanga. The troops had been training for two years in preparation for the mission.[33]

The Burundian troops were technically ready to go in early August 2007, but equipment promised by the United States and France had not yet arrived.[34] On December 23, 2007, an advance force of 100 Burundians was deployed[35] and another 100 soldiers arrived on 2007-12-24.[36] By late 2008, 1,700 Burundian soldiers were deployed to Mogadishu.[37]

Expanding role

In a closed door meeting in Kampala on 22 July 2010, AU ministers agreed to expand the mission's mandate from a peacekeeping focus to a peace-enforcement focus that would engage al-Shabaab more directly. The decision came soon after deadly bomb attacks in the Ugandan capital.[38] A few days later in response to UN pressure, the AU agreed not to expand the mandate but did allow preemptive strikes against Al-Shabaab and promised more troops from other African countries.[39]

On July 23, 2010, Djibouti and Guinea pledged troops to AMISOM.[40] On 17 September 2010, an AU envoy said in Nairobi that AMISOM's size had grown from 6,300 to 7,200 troops after an additional battalion from Uganda joined the force.[41] In December 2010, the UN backed AMISOM in increasing the mission's authorised size to 12,000, and at the same time reports indicated that Uganda had promised an extra 1,800 personnel, with Burundi an extra 850.[42]

In March 2011 Burundi sent 1,000 extra soldiers to AMISOM, bringing the total number of Burundi troops deployed to 4,400.[43] AFP, reported in Africa Research Bulletin, said Burundian military chief General Godefroid Niyombare said on 14 March 2011 the soldiers had been deployed a week before.[44]

In February 2012, the U.N. Security Council boosted the amount of troops deployed from 12,000 to 17,731. The approval comes after a series of recent successes against al-Shabaab fighters who had previous positions throughout the central and southern areas of the country.[45] During the same month, AU Commander Fred Mugisha suggested that Al-Shabaab was "at [its] weakest" and would likely "implode in the not so distant future" owing to successive military defeats that it suffered as well as an exodus toward the Arabian Peninsula of hundreds of the group's fighters.[46]

Due to the successful military operations against the Islamists, the United States has also been stepping up efforts to train and equip the AMISOM troops in a bid to stamp out the Al-Shabaab insurgency and limit its influence.[47]

In October 2011, a coordinated operation between the Somali military and the Kenyan military began against the Al-Shabaab group of militants in southern Somalia.[48][49] The mission is officially being led by the Somali army, with the Kenyan forces providing a support role.[49] On 12 November, the Kenyan government agreed to rehat its forces under AMISOM command,[50] and later announced in March 2012 that it would be sending 5,000 troops to join the coalition. Analysts expect the additional AU troop reinforcements to help the Somali authorities gradually expand their territorial control.[50]

The East African reported in March 2012 on reorganisation of AMISOM's headquarters and sector commands. Personnel (J1) would be led by the AU, with Kenya taking responsibility for intelligence (J2) and logistics (J4), Uganda operations (J3) and engineer (J8), Burundi plans (J5) and communications/IS (J6), Sierra Leone training (J7), and Djibouti CIMIC (J9). There would also be four sectors: Uganda responsible for Sector One (the Shabelles and Banadir), Sector Two (the Jubbas) run by Kenya, Sector Three Burundi covering GEdo, Bay, and BAkool, and Sector from which Ethiopia forces were withdrawing from to be directed by Djibouti.[51]

Following the Westgate shooting in Nairobi by Al Shabaab operatives, the Ethiopian government halted its plans to withdraw completely out of Somalia. It instead indicated that it would continue to support the Somali armed forces and their AMISOM allies.[52] In November 2013, the Ethiopian government announced that it would integrate its troops that are deployed in Somalia into the AMISOM multinational force. Somalia's Foreign Minister Fowzia Haji Yussuf welcomed the decision, stating that the move would galvanize AMISOM's campaign against the insurgent group. She also emphasized the importance of collaboration between Somalia and Ethiopia.[53] The Ethiopian authorities' announcement came a month after a failed October bombing attempt by Al-Shabaab in the Ethiopian capital of Addis Ababa, and a week after Ethiopia received a renewed terrorism threat from the insurgent group.[54] According to Ethiopian Ministry of Foreign Affairs spokesperson Ambassador Dina Mufti, the Ethiopian military's decision to join AMISOM is intended to render the peacekeeping operation more secure.[55] Analysts also suggested that the move was primarily motivated by financial considerations, with the Ethiopian forces' operational costs now slated to be under AMISOM's allowance budget. It is believed that the Ethiopian military's long experience in Somali territory, its equipment such as helicopters, and the potential for closer coordination will help the allied forces advance their territorial gains.[56] On the other hand, there is a certain amount of unease following Ethiopia's entry into AMISOM given local animosity originating from Ethiopia's heavy handed intervention in 2006. There are also fears that Al Shabaab could use Somali animosity towards Ethiopia as a rallying cry and to recruit more members.[57]

In December 2013, the U.S. government established a military coordination cell in Mogadishu at the request of AMISOM and the Somali government. The unit consists of a small team of fewer than five advisers, including planners and communicators between AMISOM and the Somali authorities. It is intended to provide consultative and planning support to the allied forces in order to enhance their capacity and to promote peace and security throughout the country and wider region.[58]

Organization

Ugandan troops training, 2012
An AU contingent pauses during combat operations against Al-Shabaab in Lower Shebelle.

Military Commanders

No. Name Country Took command Left command Note
1 Major General Levi Karuhanga[59]  Uganda 14 February 2007 3 March 2008
2 Major General Francis Okello  Uganda 3 March 2008 7 July 2009
3 Major General Nathan Mugisha[60]  Uganda 7 July 2009 15 June 2011[61]
4 Major General Fredrick Mugisha  Uganda 15 June 2011[61][62] 2 May 2012 [63]
5 Lieutenant General Andrew Gutti[60]  Uganda 2 May 2012 Dec 2013
6 Lieutenant General Silas Ntigurirwa[64]  Burundi Dec 2013 15 Dec 2014
7 Lieutenant General Jonathon Kipkemoi Rono  Kenya Dec 2014 23 Dec 2015
8 Major General Nakibus Lakara  Uganda Dec 2015 [Acting]

Deputy commanders

No. Name Country Took command Left command Note
1 Major General Juvenal Niyoyunguruza  Burundi 2008 17 Sep 2009 KIA
2 Major General Cyprien Hakiza  Burundi Sep 2009 Apr 2010
3 Major General Maurice Gateretse  Burundi Apr 2010 Jun 2010
4 Major General Audace Nduwumunsi  Burundi Jun 2010
5a Major General Salvatore Harushimana  Burundi Deputy Force Commander (Support)
5b Major General Simon N. Karanja[65]  Kenya 9 Apr 2012 Dec 2013 Deputy Force Commander (Operations & Plans)
6a Major General Francis Kimeu Nthenge[66]  Kenya 27 Nov 2013 Sep 2014 Deputy Force Commander (Support & Logistics)
6b Major General Geoffrey Baraba Muheesi[67]  Uganda 27 Nov 2013 Deputy Force Commander (Operations & Plans)
7a Major General Nakibus Lakara[68]  Uganda Apr 2015 incumbent Deputy Force Commander (Logistical Support)
7b Major General Mohammed Esha Zeyinu[69]  Ethiopia incumbent Deputy Force Commander (Operations & Plans)

Spokespersons

No. Name Country Took command Left command Note
1 Captain Paddy Akunda[60]  Uganda March 2007 2008
2 Major Barigye Bohuko[70]  Uganda 2008 3 May 2011
3 Lt. Colonel Paddy Akunda[71][72]  Uganda 3 May 2011 8 Jul 2012
4 Colonel Ali Houmed  Djibouti 8 Jul 2012 [Dec 2014]
5 Lt. Colonel Paul Njuguna  Kenya 16 March 2015 [Incumbent]

Contingent commanders

UPDF contingent

No. Name Country Took command Left command Note
1 Colonel Jack Bakusumba[73]  Uganda Sep 2009
2 Colonel Tumusiime Katsigazi[74]  Uganda Sep 2009 18 Jun 2010
3 Colonel Michael Ondoga[75]  Uganda 18 Jun 2010 3 May 2011
4 Brigadier Paul Lokech[60]  Uganda 3 May 2011 Nov 2012
5 Brigadier Michael Ondoga[76]  Uganda Nov 2012 23 Sep 2013
6 Brigadier Deus Sande[77]  Uganda 23 Sep 2013 25 Sep 2013 Acting in role
7 Brigadier Dick Olum[77]  Uganda 25 Sep 2013 Oct 2014
8 Brigadier Sam Kavuma[78]  Uganda Oct 2014 29 Nov 2015
9 Brigadier Sam Okiding  Uganda 30 Nov 2015 [incumbent]

BNDF contingent

No. Name Country Took command Left command Note
1 Major General Prime Niyongabo[64]  Burundi Jun 2009 Jun 2010
2 Brigadier General Maurice Gateretse[64]  Burundi Jun 2010 Jun 2011
3 Colonel Jean Luc Habarugira[64]  Burundi Jun 2011 Incumbent

ENDF contingent

No. Name Country Took command Left command Note
1 Brigadier General Gebremedhin Fikadu Hailu[79]  Ethiopia Jan 2014 Incumbent

KDF contingent

No. Name Country Took command Left command Note
1 Brigadier General Anthony Mukundi Ngere[80]  Kenya July 2012 December 2013
2 Brigadier General Walter Koipaton Raria[81]  Kenya December 2013 mid-2015
3 Brigadier General Daniel C Bartonjo[82]  Kenya mid-2015 Incumbent

DJAF contingent

No. Name Country Took command Left command Note
1 Colonel Osman Doubad[83]  Djibouti Incumbent

RSLAF contingent

No. Name Country Took command Left command Note
1 Lieutenant colonel Abubakar Conteh[84]  Sierra Leone December 2014 See note on RSLAF personnel

Civil staff

The civilian staff of AMISOM has been operating from Nairobi, Kenya since 2008 due to the security situation in Mogadishu, Somalia.[85] As of now, they number approximately 81 personnel.

Since the beginning of 2011 AMISOM and TFG has taken control over several strategic places in Mogadishu after several offensives against Al-Shabaab.

With the expanded control over the capital AMISOM on 16 May 2011 moved the civil staff and police officers to Mogadishu. This includes Special Representative of the Chairperson of the African Union Commission for Somalia (SRCC) Ambassador Boubacar Gaoussou Diarra and deputy (SRCC) Honourable Wafula Wamunyinyi.[85]

Much of the key logistical support for the force is provided by the United Nations Support Office for AMISOM (UNSOA), a field mission of the UN Secretariat Department of Field Support.

The Civilian component is supervised by the Special Representative of the Chairperson of the African Union Commission for Somalia (SRCC) which is represented on the ground by Ambassador Mahamat Saleh Annadif. who oversees the Political, Civil, Humanitarian, Gender and Public Information departments.

Ambassador Epiphanie Kabushemeye-Ntamwana is the civilian Chief of Staff.

The Chief Administrative Officer Timothy Kiguti heads the support component of the mission which includes administration personnel, finance and budgeting, logistics and procurement among other issues.

The Police contingent, which takes care of civilian security matters rather than frontline peacekeeping, is headed by the AMISOM Police Commissioner Anand Pillay

Training for contingents

The United States has provided extensive training for contingents headed for Somalia. In the first half of 2012, Force Recon Marines from Special Purpose Marine Air-Ground Task Force 12 (SPMAGTF-12) trained soldiers from the Uganda People's Defence Force.[86] In the northern spring of 2012 [March–April–May], Marines from SPMAGTF-12 also trained Burundian soldiers. In April and May, members of Task Force Raptor, 3rd Squadron, 124th Cavalry Regiment of the Texas Army National Guard, took part in a separate training mission with the BNDF in Mudubugu, Burundi. SPMAGTF-12 has also sent its trainers to Djibouti, another nation involved in the Somali mission, to work with an army unit there.

At the same time, U.S. troops have assisted in training the Republic of Sierra Leone Armed Forces in preparation for their deployment to Somalia later this year. In June 2012, U.S. Army Africa commander Major General David R. Hogg spoke encouragingly of the future of Sierra Leone's forces in conjunction with Kenya.[87] As of June 2012, the RSLAF troops have not yet deployed; the Sierra Leonean defence minister said on June 23, 2012, that the battalion might depart for the Horn 'some time in September [2012].'[88]

In addition, a significant amount of support to AMISOM has been provided by private companies. "Bancroft Global Development, headquartered on Washington's Embassy Row, employs about 40 South African and European trainers who work with [AMISOM's] Ugandan and Burundian troops.[89] Bancroft director Michael Stock told The EastAfrican that these mentors are embedded with AMISOM units in Mogadishu and southern and central Somalia. They coach commanders on ..how to predict and defeat the tactics which foreign fighters bring from outside East Africa and teach to al-Shabaab." Bancroft "does not receive funding directly from the US government but is instead paid by AMISOM, which is then reimbursed by the State Department for these outlays." The Associated Press reports that Bancroft has been paid $12.5 million for its work in Somalia since 2008.

A security analyst in Somalia listed three primary private security companies/private military companies operating in Mogadishu.[90] DynCorp, who provide logistical support in the Somali capital; Bancroft International, who provide training to TFG and AMISOM personnel, as well as assisting with community service delivery; and Pacific Architects & Engineers.

Deployment

Troop numbers

Country Armed personnel (current) Casualties
Troops Police Killed Missing or captured
UgandaUganda People's Defence Force 6,223 201[91] 110[92]-2,700+[93]
BurundiBurundi National Defence Force 5,432[94] 95+[92] 4 missing,[95] 1 captured[96]
EthiopiaEthiopian National Defense Force 4,395[97] 2+ (supposedly)[98]
KenyaKenya Defence Forces 3,664[81] 48[99] 36-118[100][101]
DjiboutiDjibouti Armed Forces 2,000[102] 8+[103][104][105]
Sierra LeoneRepublic of Sierra Leone Armed Forces 0 (formerly 850)* [106] 47[107] 1[106]
NigeriaNigeria Police Force 200[108]
GhanaGhana Police Service 56[109]
Total 21,500+ 550+ 1,108[92]-3,000+[110] 5
* The reason why troops from Sierra Leone were withdrawn was the inability to rotate in fresh soldiers, due to the Ebola outbreak in Sierra Leone and the surrounding region. In response, Ethiopia has offered to replace the contingent from Sierra Leone with Ethiopian reinforcements.[111]
- The total number of personnel under AMISOM (including armed personnel and civil staff) is reportedly around 22,126.[66]
- Before joining AMISOM in January 2014, the Ethiopian Defense Force was believed to have an estimated 8,000 troops in the country.[55] It is also believed that some Ethiopian troops in Somalia operate independently from AMISOM.[112]
- Likewise, Kenya had troops deployed in Somalia independently before they were brought under the AMISOM umbrella
- Cameroon, Mali, Senegal, and Zambia were known to have a total of four personnel inserted into AMISOM. However, it is not known whether they were security or civil personnel.[43][113]
- Furthermore, there are also a small number of police officers from Burundi, Gambia, and Zimbabwe that are inserted into AMISOM[66]

Casualties and Injuries

According to SIPRI, 1,039 AMISOM soldiers were killed in action between January 1, 2009, and December 31, 2013, with an additional 69 fatalities in 2014 (per AMISOM) bringing the total to 1,108 dead from 2009 through 2014.[92]

March 2007–February 2011

AMISOM medical facility records showed 110 Ugandan and 95 Burundian soldiers had died between March 2007 and February 2011 in Somalia. Another 798 AMISOM soldiers were wounded.[92] Some of the most deadliest incidents were:

March–December 2011

2012

2014

2015

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to African Union Mission to Somalia.

References

  1. ↑ United Nations Security Council Resolution 1772. S/RES/1772(2007) page 3. (2007) Retrieved 2008-03-13.
  2. 1 2 3 "69th meeting of the peace and Security Council". Agence de Presse Africaine. 2007-01-22. Archived from the original on August 28, 2007. Retrieved 2007-02-09.
  3. 1 2 United Nations Security Council Resolution 1744. S/RES/1744(2007) (2007) Retrieved 2008-03-13.
  4. 1 2 United Nations Security Council Resolution 1772. S/RES/1772(2007) (2007) Retrieved 2008-03-13.
  5. ↑ United Nations Security Council Resolution 1801. S/RES/1801(2008) (2008) Retrieved 2008-03-13.
  6. ↑ See: United Nations Security Council Resolution 2182 (2014) Adopted by the Security Council at its 7286th meeting, on 24 October 2014; Paragraph 23.
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  9. 1 2 United Nations Security Council Resolution 1725. S/RES/1725(2006) (2006) Retrieved 2008-03-13.
  10. ↑ "IGAD to deploy peacekeepers despite opposition by faction leaders", IRIN, March 16, 2005
  11. 1 2 Security Council Report: July 2006: Somalia Security Council Report
  12. ↑ Sam Kutesa: We call on the Security Council to lift the arms embargo to enable deployment of IGASOM and AU Forces."
  13. ↑ http://web.archive.org/web/20090505212429/http://www.latimes.com:80/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-somalia7dec07,1,5006337.story?coll=la-headlines-world. Archived from the original on May 5, 2009. Retrieved December 7, 2006. Missing or empty |title= (help)
  14. ↑ https://web.archive.org/20070310123211/http://news.yahoo.com:80/s/ap/20070301/ap_on_re_af/somalia. Archived from the original on March 10, 2007. Retrieved February 19, 2016. Missing or empty |title= (help)
  15. ↑ Somali 'jihad' on foreign troops BBC
  16. ↑ Communique IGAD Archived December 21, 2006, at the Wayback Machine.
  17. ↑ Security Council Report: December 2006: Somalia Security Council Report
  18. ↑ Controversy in Ugandan government over sending troops to Somalia Shabelle Media Network Archived September 30, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
  19. ↑ Uganda in quandary of sending peacekeepers to Somalia Shabelle Media Networks Archived September 27, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
  20. ↑ Ugandan troops ready to deploy to Somalia within days Shabelle Media Network Archived September 30, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
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  33. ↑ "Ugandan Troops Set to Arrive in Somalia as Part of AU Force". Shabelle Media Network. 2007-02-16. Archived from the original on September 27, 2007. Retrieved 2007-02-16.
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  35. ↑ "BBC NEWS - Africa - Burundi troops join AU in Somalia". Retrieved 27 February 2015.
  36. ↑ France 24 Archived May 5, 2009, at the Wayback Machine.
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  39. ↑ Kasasira, Risdel; Solomon Muyita (2010-07-28). "Africa: United Nations Blocks Change of Amisom Mandate". allAfrica.com. Archived from the original on 31 July 2010. Retrieved 2010-07-29.
  40. ↑ "AU nations to boost Somalia force". Al Jazeera. July 23, 2010.
  41. ↑ PANA, Nairobi, 17/9/2010, via Africa Research Bulletin-PSC, September 1–31, 2010, Vol. 47, No. 9, p.18561C.
  42. ↑ Africa Research Bulletin Dec 1-31, 2010, p.18664-5, reporting PANA New York 23/12/2010, New Vision Kampala 23/12/2010, and RFI in Paris.
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  44. ↑ AFP 14/3/2011, reported in ARB-PSC March 1–31, 2011, p.18776C.
  45. ↑ "UN council approves increase in AU Somalia force". Reuters. 22 February 2012.
  46. ↑ "Somali's al Shabaab crumbling: AU". 23 February 2012.
  47. ↑ "U.S. steps up training for African force in Somalia". Chicago Tribune. 1 May 2012.
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