Amarna letters
The Amarna letters (sometimes referred to as the Amarna correspondence or Amarna tablets) are an archive, written on clay tablets, primarily consisting of diplomatic correspondence between the Egyptian administration and its representatives in Canaan and Amurru during the New Kingdom. The letters were found in Upper Egypt at Amarna, the modern name for the ancient Egyptian capital of Akhetaten (el-Amarna), founded by pharaoh Akhenaten (1350s – 1330s BC) during the Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt. The Amarna letters are unusual in Egyptological research, because they are mostly written in Akkadian cuneiform, the writing system of ancient Mesopotamia, rather than that of ancient Egypt. The known tablets total 382: 24 tablets had been recovered since the Norwegian Assyriologist Jørgen Alexander Knudtzon's landmark edition of the Amarna letters, Die El-Amarna-Tafel, published in two volumes (1907 and 1915).[1] The written correspondence spans a period of at most thirty years.
The Amarna letters are of great significance for biblical studies as well as Semitic linguistics, since they shed light on the culture and language of the Canaanite peoples in pre-biblical times. The letters, though written in Akkadian, are heavily colored by the mother tongue of their writers, who spoke an early form of Canaanite, the language family which would later evolve into its daughter languages, Hebrew and Phoenician. These "Canaanisms" provide valuable insights into the proto-stage of those languages several centuries prior to their first actual manifestation.[2][3]
The letters
These letters, comprising cuneiform tablets written primarily in Akkadian – the regional language of diplomacy for this period – were first discovered around 1887 by local Egyptians who secretly dug most of them from the ruined city of Amarna, and sold them in the antiquities market. They had originally been stored in an ancient building that archaeologists have since called the Bureau of Correspondence of Pharaoh. Once the location where they were found was determined, the ruins were explored for more. The first archaeologist who successfully recovered more tablets was Flinders Petrie, who in 1891 and 1892 uncovered 21 fragments. Émile Chassinat, then director of the French Institute for Oriental Archaeology in Cairo, acquired two more tablets in 1903. Since Knudtzon's edition, some 24 more tablets, or fragments, have been found, either in Egypt, or identified in the collections of various museums.[4]
The initial group of letters recovered by local Egyptians have been scattered among museums in Germany, England, Egypt, France, Russia, and the United States. Either 202 or 203 tablets are at the Vorderasiatisches Museum in Berlin; 99 are at the British Museum in London;[5] 49 or 50 are at the Egyptian Museum in Cairo; 7 at the Louvre in Paris; 3 at the Pushkin Museum in Moscow; and 1 in the collection of the Oriental Institute in Chicago.[6]
The archive contains a wealth of information about cultures, kingdoms, events and individuals in a period from which few written sources survive. It includes correspondence from Akhenaten's reign, as well as his predecessor Amenhotep III's reign. The tablets consist of over 300 diplomatic letters; the remainder comprise miscellaneous literary and educational materials. These tablets shed much light on Egyptian relations with Babylonia, Assyria, Syria, Canaan, and Alashiya (Cyprus) as well as relations with the Mitanni, and the Hittites. The letters have been important in establishing both the history and the chronology of the period. Letters from the Babylonian king, Kadashman-Enlil I, anchor the timeframe of Akhenaten's reign to the mid-14th century BC. They also contain the first mention of a Near Eastern group known as the Habiru, whose possible connection with the Hebrews — due to the similarity of the words and their geographic location — remains debated. Other rulers involved in the letters include Tushratta of Mitanni, Lib'ayu of Shechem, Abdi-Heba of Jerusalem, and the quarrelsome king, Rib-Hadda, of Byblos, who, in over 58 letters, continuously pleads for Egyptian military help. Specifically, the letters include requests for military help in the north against Hittite invaders, and in the south to fight against the Habiru.[7]
Letter summary
Amarna Letters are politically arranged in rough counterclockwise fashion:
- 001–014 Babylonia
- 015–016 Assyria
- 017–030 Mitanni
- 031–032 Arzawa
- 033–040 Alashiya
- 041–044 Hatti
- 045–380+ Syria/Lebanon/Canaan
Amarna Letters from Syria/Lebanon/Canaan are distributed roughly:
- 045–067 Syria
- 068–227 Lebanon (where 68–140 are from Gubla aka Byblos)
- 227–380 Canaan (written mostly in the Canaano-Akkadian language).
Amarna letters list
Note: Many assignments are tentative; spellings vary widely. This is just a guide.
| EA# | Letter author to recipient |
|---|---|
| EA# 1 | Amenhotep III to Babylon king Kadashman-Enlil |
| EA# 2 | Babylon king Kadashman-Enlil to Amenhotep 3 |
| EA# 3 | Babylon king Kadashman-Enlil to Amenhotep 3 |
| EA# 4 | Babylon king Kadashman-Enlil to Amenhotep 3 |
| EA# 5 | Amenhotep 3 to Babylon king KadashmanEnlil |
| EA# 6 | Babylon king Burna-Buriash II to Amenhotep 3 |
| EA# 7 | Babylon king Burna-Buriash 2 to Amenhotep IV |
| EA# 8 | Babylon king Burna-Buriash 2 to Amenhotep 4 |
| EA# 9 | Babylon king Burna-Buriash 2 to Amenhotep 4 |
| EA# 10 | Babylon king Burna-Buriash 2 to Amenhotep 4 |
| EA# 11 | Babylon king Burna-Buriash 2 to Amenhotep 4 |
| EA# 12 | princess to her lord |
| EA# 13 | Babylon |
| EA# 14 | Amenhotep 4 to Babylon king Burna-Buriash 2 |
| EA# 15 | Assyria king Ashur-Uballit I to Amenhotep 4 |
| EA# 16 | Assyria king Ashur-Uballit 1 to Amenhotep 4 |
| EA# 17 | Mitanni king Tushratta to Amenhotep 3 |
| EA# 18 | Mitanni king Tushratta to Amenhotep 3 |
| EA# 19 | Mitanni king Tushratta to Amenhotep 3 |
| EA# 20 | Mitanni king Tushratta to Amenhotep 3 |
| EA# 21 | Mitanni king Tushratta to Amenhotep 3 |
| EA# 22 | Mitanni king Tushratta to Amenhotep 3 |
| EA# 23 | Mitanni king Tushratta to Amenhotep 3 |
| EA# 24 | Mitanni king Tushratta to Amenhotep 3 |
| EA# 25 | Mitanni king Tushratta to Amenhotep 4 |
| EA# 26 | Mitanni king Tushratta to widow Tiy |
| EA# 27 | Mitanni king Tushratta to Amenhotep 4 |
| EA# 28 | Mitanni king Tushratta to Amenhotep 4 |
| EA# 29 | Mitanni king Tushratta to Amenhotep 4 |
| EA# 30 | Mitanni king to Palestine kings |
| EA# 31 | Amenhotep 3 to Arzawa king Tarhundaraba |
| EA# 32 | Arzawa king Tarhundaraba to Amenhotep 3(?) |
| EA# 33 | Alashiya king to pharaoh #1 |
| EA# 34 | Alashiya king to pharaoh #2 |
| EA# 35 | Alashiya king to pharaoh #3 |
| EA# 36 | Alashiya king to pharaoh #4 |
| EA# 37 | Alashiya king to pharaoh #5 |
| EA# 38 | Alashiya king to pharaoh #6 |
| EA# 39 | Alashiya king to pharaoh #7 |
| EA# 40 | Alashiya minister to Egypt minister |
| EA# 41 | Hittite king Suppiluliuma to Huri[a] |
| EA# 42 | Hittite king to pharaoh |
| EA# 43 | Hittite king to pharaoh |
| EA# 44 | Hittite prince Zi[k]ar to pharaoh |
| EA# 45 | Ugarit king [M]istu ... to pharaoh |
| EA# 46 | Ugarit king ... to king |
| EA# 47 | Ugarit king ... to king |
| EA# 48 | Ugarit queen ..[h]epa to pharaohs queen |
| EA# 49 | Ugarit king Niqm-Adda II to pharaoh |
| EA# 50 | woman to her mistress B[i]... |
| EA#051 | Nuhasse king Addunirari to pharaoh |
| EA#052 | Qatna king Akizzi to Amenhotep 3 #1 |
| EA#053 | Qatna king Akizzi to Amenhotep 3 #2 |
| EA#054 | Qatna king Akizzi to Amenhotep 3 #3 |
| EA#055 | Qatna king Akizzi to Amenhotep 3 #4 |
| EA#056 | ... to king |
| EA#057 | ... |
| EA#058 | |
| EA#058 | [Qat]ihutisupa to king(?) obverse |
| EA#059 | Tunip peoples to pharaoh |
| EA#060 | Amurru king Abdi-Asirta to pharaoh #1 |
| EA#061 | Amurru king Abdi-Asirta to pharaoh #2 |
| EA#062 | Amurru king Abdi-Asirta to Pahanate |
| EA#063 | Amurru king Abdi-Asirta to pharaoh #3 |
| EA#064 | Amurru king Abdi-Asirta to pharaoh #4 |
| EA#065 | Amurru king Abdi-Asirta to pharaoh #5 |
| EA#066 | --- to king |
| EA#067 | --- to king |
| EA#068 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #1 |
| EA#069 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to Egypt official |
| EA#070 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #2 |
| EA#071 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to Haia(?) |
| EA#072 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #3 |
| EA#073 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to Amanappa #1 |
| EA#074 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #4 |
| EA#075 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #5 |
| EA#076 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #6 |
| EA#077 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to Amanappa #2 |
| EA#078 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #7 |
| EA#079 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #8 |
| EA#080 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #9 |
| EA#081 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #10 |
| EA#082 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to Amanappa #3 |
| EA#083 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #11 |
| EA#084 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #12 |
| EA#085 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #13 |
| EA#086 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to Amanappa #4 |
| EA#087 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to Amanappa #5 |
| EA#088 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #14 |
| EA#089 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #15 |
| EA#090 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #16 |
| EA#091 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #17 |
| EA#092 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #18 |
| EA#093 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to Amanappa #6 |
| EA#094 | Gubla man to pharaoh |
| EA#095 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to chief |
| EA#096 | chief to Rib-Addi |
| EA#097 | Iapah-Addi to Sumu-Hadi |
| EA#098 | Iapah-Addi to Ianhamu |
| EA#099 | pharaoh to Ammia prince(?) |
| EA#100 | Irqata peoples |
| EA#1001 | Tagi to Lab-Aya |
| EA#101 | Gubla man to Egypt official |
| EA#102 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to [Ianha]m[u] |
| EA#103 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #19 |
| EA#104 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #20 |
| EA#105 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #21 |
| EA#106 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #22 |
| EA#107 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #23 |
| EA#108 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #24 |
| EA#109 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #25 |
| EA#110 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #26 |
| EA#111 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #27 |
| EA#112 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #28 |
| EA#113 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to Egypt official |
| EA#114 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #29 |
| EA#115 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #30 |
| EA#116 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #31 |
| EA#117 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #32 |
| EA#118 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #33 |
| EA#119 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #34 |
| EA#120 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #35 |
| EA#121 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #36 |
| EA#122 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #37 |
| EA#123 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #38 |
| EA#124 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #39 |
| EA#125 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #40 |
| EA#126 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #41 |
| EA#127 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #42 |
| EA#128 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #43 |
| EA#129 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #44 |
| EA#129 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #45 |
| EA#130 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #46 |
| EA#131 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #47 |
| EA#132 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #48 |
| EA#133 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #49 |
| EA#134 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #50 |
| EA#135 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #51 |
| EA#136 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #52 |
| EA#137 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #53 |
| EA#138 | Gubal king Rib-Addi to pharaoh #54 |
| EA#139 | Ilirabih & Gubla to pharaoh #1 |
| EA#140 | Ilirabih & Gubla to pharaoh #2 |
| EA#141 | Beruta king Ammunira to pharaoh #1 |
| EA#142 | Beruta king Ammunira to pharaoh #2 |
| EA#143 | Beruta king Ammunira to pharaoh #3 |
| EA#144 | Zidon king Zimriddi to pharaoh |
| EA#145 | [Z]imrid[a] to an official |
| EA#146 | Tyre king Abi-Milki to pharaoh #1 |
| EA#147 | Tyre king AbiMilki to pharaoh #2 |
| EA#148 | Tyre king AbiMilki to pharaoh #3 |
| EA#149 | Tyre king AbiMilki to pharaoh #4 |
| EA#150 | Tyre king AbiMilki to pharaoh #5 |
| EA#151 | Tyre king AbiMilki to pharaoh #6 |
| EA#152 | Tyre king AbiMilki to pharaoh #7 |
| EA#153 | Tyre king AbiMilki to pharaoh #8 |
| EA#154 | Tyre king AbiMilki to pharaoh #9 |
| EA#155 | Tyre king AbiMilki to pharaoh #10 |
| EA#156 | Amurru king Aziri to pharaoh #1 |
| EA#157 | Amurru king Aziri to pharaoh #2 |
| EA#158 | Amurru king Aziri to Dudu #1 |
| EA#159 | Amurru king Aziri to pharaoh #3 |
| EA#160 | Amurru king Aziri to pharaoh #4 |
| EA#161 | Amurru king Aziri to pharaoh #5 |
| EA#162 | pharaoh to Amurra prince |
| EA#163 | pharaoh to ... |
| EA#164 | Amurru king Aziri to Dudu #2 |
| EA#165 | Amurru king Aziri to pharaoh #6 |
| EA#166 | Amurru king Aziri to Hai |
| EA#167 | Amurru king Aziri to (Hai #2?) |
| EA#168 | Amurru king Aziri to pharaoh #7 |
| EA#169 | Amurru son of Aziri to an Egypt official |
| EA#170 | Ba-Aluia & Battiilu |
| EA#171 | Amurru son of Aziri to pharaoh |
| EA#172 | --- |
| EA#173 | ... to king |
| EA#174 | Bieri of Hasabu |
| EA#175 | Ildaja of Hazi to king |
| EA#176 | Abdi-Risa |
| EA#177 | Guddasuna king Jamiuta |
| EA#178 | Hibija to a chief |
| EA#179 | ... to king |
| EA#180 | ... to king |
| EA#181 | ... to king |
| EA#182 | Mittani king Shuttarna to pharaoh #1 |
| EA#183 | Mittani king Shuttarna to pharaoh #2 |
| EA#184 | Mittani king Shuttarna to pharaoh #3 |
| EA#185 | Hazi king Majarzana to king |
| EA#186 | Majarzana of Hazi to king #2 |
| EA#187 | Satija of ... to king |
| EA#188 | ... to king |
| EA#189 | Qadesh mayor Etakkama |
| EA#190 | pharaoh to Qadesh mayor Etakkama(?) |
| EA#191 | Ruhiza king Arzawaija to king |
| EA#192 | Ruhiza king Arzawaija to king #2 |
| EA#193 | Dijate to king |
| EA#194 | Damascus mayor Biryawaza to king #1 |
| EA#195 | Damascus mayor Biryawaza to king #2 |
| EA#196 | Damascus mayor Biryawaza to king #3 |
| EA#197 | Damascus mayor Biryawaza to king #4 |
| EA#198 | Ara[ha]ttu of Kumidi to king |
| EA#199 | ... the king |
| EA#200 | servant to king |
| EA#2001 | Sealants |
| EA#2002 | Sealants |
| EA#201 | Artemanja of Ziribasani to king |
| EA#202 | Amajase to king |
| EA#203 | Abdi-Milki of Sashimi |
| EA#204 | prince of Qanu to king |
| EA#205 | Gubbu prince to king |
| EA#206 | prince of Naziba to king |
| EA#207 | Ipteh ... to king |
| EA#208 | ... to Egypt official or king |
| EA#209 | Zisamimi to king |
| EA#210 | Zisami[mi] to Amenhotep IV |
| EA#2100 | Carchemish king to Ugarit king Asukwari |
| EA#211 | Zitrijara to king #1 |
| EA#2110 | Ewiri-Shar to Plsy |
| EA#212 | Zitrijara to king #2 |
| EA#213 | Zitrijara to king #3 |
| EA#214 | ... to king |
| EA#215 | Baiawa to king #1 |
| EA#216 | Baiawa to king #2 |
| EA#217 | A[h]... to king |
| EA#218 | ... to king |
| EA#219 | ... to king |
| EA#220 | Nukurtuwa of (?) [Z]unu to king |
| EA#221 | Wiktazu to king #1 |
| EA#222 | pharaoh to Intaruda |
| EA#222 | Wik[tazu] to king #2 |
| EA#223 | En[g]u[t]a to king |
| EA#224 | Sum-Add[a] to king |
| EA#225 | Sum-Adda of Samhuna to king |
| EA#226 | Sipturi_ to king |
| EA#227 | Hazor king |
| EA#228 | Hazor king Abdi-Tirsi |
| EA#229 | Abdi-na-... to king |
| EA#230 | Iama to king |
| EA#231 | ... to king |
| EA#232 | Acco king Zurata to pharaoh |
| EA#233 | Acco king Zatatna to pharaoh #1 |
| EA#234 | Acco king Zatatna to pharaoh #2 |
| EA#235 | Zitatna/(Zatatna) to king |
| EA#236 | ... to king |
| EA#237 | Bajadi to king |
| EA#238 | Bajadi |
| EA#239 | Baduzana |
| EA#240 | ... to king |
| EA#241 | Rusmania to king |
| EA#242 | Megiddo king Biridija to pharaoh #1 |
| EA#243 | Megiddo king Biridija to pharaoh #2 |
| EA#244 | Megiddo king Biridija to pharaoh #3 |
| EA#245 | Megiddo king Biridija to pharaoh #4 |
| EA#246 | Megiddo king Biridija to pharaoh #5 |
| EA#247 | Megiddo king Biridija or Jasdata |
| EA#248 | Ja[sd]ata to king |
| EA#248 | Megiddo king Biridija to pharaoh |
| EA#249 | |
| EA#249 | Addu-Ur-sag to king |
| EA#250 | Addu-Ur-sag to king |
| EA#2500 | Shechem |
| EA#251 | ... to Egypt official |
| EA#252 | Labaja to king |
| EA#253 | Labaja to king |
| EA#254 | Labaja to king |
| EA#255 | Mut-Balu or Mut-Bahlum to king |
| EA#256 | Mut-Balu to Ianhamu |
| EA#257 | Balu-Mihir to king #1 |
| EA#258 | Balu-Mihir to king #2 |
| EA#259 | Balu-Mihir to king #3 |
| EA#260 | Balu-Mihir to king #4 |
| EA#261 | Dasru to king #1 |
| EA#262 | Dasru to king #2 |
| EA#263 | ... to lord |
| EA#264 | Gezer leader Tagi to pharaoh #1 |
| EA#265 | Gezer leader Tagi to pharaoh #2 |
| EA#266 | Gezer leader Tagi to pharaoh #3 |
| EA#267 | Gezer mayor Milkili to pharaoh #1 |
| EA#268 | Gezer mayor Milkili to pharaoh #2 |
| EA#269 | Gezer mayor Milkili to pharaoh #3 |
| EA#270 | Gezer mayor Milkili to pharaoh #4 |
| EA#271 | Gezer mayor Milkili to pharaoh #5 |
| EA#272 | Sum. .. to king |
| EA#273 | Ba-Lat-Nese to king |
| EA#274 | Ba-Lat-Nese to king #2 |
| EA#275 | Iahazibada to king #1 |
| EA#276 | Iahazibada to king #2 |
| EA#277 | Qiltu king Suwardata to pharaoh #1 |
| EA#278 | Qiltu king Suwardata to pharaoh #2 |
| EA#279 | Qiltu king Suwardata to pharaoh #3 |
| EA#280 | Qiltu king Suwardata to pharaoh #3 |
| EA#281 | Qiltu king Suwardata to pharaoh #4 |
| EA#282 | Qiltu king Suwardata to pharaoh #5 |
| EA#283 | Qiltu king Suwardata to pharaoh #6 |
| EA#284 | Qiltu king Suwardata to pharaoh #7 |
| EA#285 | Jerusalem king Abdi-Hiba to pharaoh |
| EA#286 | Jerusalem king AbdiHiba to pharaoh |
| EA#287 | Jerusalem king AbdiHiba to pharaoh |
| EA#288 | Jerusalem king AbdiHiba to pharaoh |
| EA#289 | Jerusalem king AbdiHiba to pharaoh |
| EA#290 | Jerusalem king AbdiHiba to pharaoh |
| EA#290 | Qiltu king Suwardata to king |
| EA#291 | ... to ... |
| EA#292 | Gezer mayor Addudani to pharaoh #1 |
| EA#293 | Gezer mayor Addudani to pharaoh #2 |
| EA#294 | Gezer mayor Addudani to pharaoh #3 |
| EA#295 | |
| EA#295 | Gezer mayor Addudani to pharaoh #4 |
| EA#296 | Gaza king Iahtiri |
| EA#297 | Gezer mayor Iapah[i] to pharaoh #1 |
| EA#298 | Gezer mayor Iapahi to pharaoh #2 |
| EA#299 | Gezer mayor Iapahi to pharaoh #3 |
| EA#300 | Gezer mayor Iapahi to pharaoh #4 |
| EA#301 | Subandu to king #1 |
| EA#302 | Subandu to king #2 |
| EA#303 | Subandu to king #3 |
| EA#304 | Subandu to king #4 |
| EA#305 | Subandu to king #5 |
| EA#306 | Subandu to king #6 |
| EA#307 | ... to king |
| EA#308 | ... to king |
| EA#309 | ... to king |
| EA#310 | ... to king |
| EA#311 | ... to king |
| EA#312 | ... to king |
| EA#313 | ... to king |
| EA#314 | Jursa king Pu-Ba-Lu to pharaoh #1 |
| EA#315 | Jursa king PuBaLu to pharaoh #2 |
| EA#316 | Jursa king PuBaLu to pharaoh |
| EA#317 | Dagantakala to king #1 |
| EA#318 | Dagantakala to king #2 |
| EA#319 | A[h]tirumna king Zurasar to king |
| EA#320 | Asqalon king Yidia to pharaoh #1 |
| EA#321 | Asqalon king Widia to pharaoh #2 |
| EA#322 | Asqalon king Widia to pharaoh #3 |
| EA#323 | Asqalon king Widia to pharaoh #4 |
| EA#324 | Asqalon king Widia to pharaoh #5 |
| EA#325 | Asqalon king Widia to pharaoh #6 |
| EA#326 | Asqalon king Widia to pharaoh #7 |
| EA#327 | ... the king |
| EA#328 | Lakis mayor Iabniilu to pharaoh |
| EA#329 | Lakis king Zimridi to pharaoh |
| EA#330 | Lakis mayor Sipti-Ba-Lu to pharaoh #1 |
| EA#331 | Lakis mayor SiptiBaLu to pharaoh #2 |
| EA#332 | Lakis mayor SiptiBaLu to pharaoh #3 |
| EA#333 | Ebi to a prince |
| EA#334 | ---dih of Zuhra [-?] to king |
| EA#335 | --- [of Z]uhr[u] to king |
| EA#336 | Hiziri to king #1 |
| EA#337 | Hiziri to king #2 |
| EA#338 | Zi. .. to king |
| EA#339 | ... to king |
| EA#340 | ... |
| EA#341 | ... |
| EA#342 | ... |
| EA#356 | myth of Adapa and the South Wind |
| EA#357 | myth the Ereskigal and Nergal |
| EA#358 | myth fragments |
| EA#359 | myth Epic of king of Battle |
| EA#360 | ... |
| EA#361 | ... |
| EA#364 | Aiab to king |
| EA#365 | Megiddo king Biridiya to pharaoh |
| EA#367 | pharaoh to Endaruta of Akshapa |
| EA#xxx | Amenhotep III to Milkili |
| H#3100 | Tell el-Hesi |
| P#3200 | Pella prince Mut-Balu to Yanhamu |
| P#3210 | Lion Woman to king |
| T#3002 | Amenhotep to Taanach king Rewassa |
| T#3005 | Amenhotep to Taanach king Rewassa |
| T#3006 | Amenhotep to Taanach king Rewassa |
| U#4001 | Ugarit king Niqmaddu |
Chronology
William L. Moran summarizes the state of the chronology of these tablets as follows:
Despite a long history of inquiry, the chronology of the Amarna letters, both relative and absolute, presents many problems, some of bewildering complexity, that still elude definitive solution. Consensus obtains only about what is obvious, certain established facts, and these provide only a broad framework within which many and often quite different reconstructions of the course of events reflected in the Amarna letters are possible and have been defended. ...The Amarna archive, it is now generally agreed, spans at most about thirty years, perhaps only fifteen or so.[8]
From the internal evidence, the earliest possible date for this correspondence is the final decade of the reign of Amenhotep III, who ruled from 1388 to 1351 BC (or 1391 to 1353 BC), possibly as early as this king's 30th regnal year; the latest date any of these letters were written is the desertion of the city of Amarna, commonly believed to have happened in the second year of the reign of Tutankhamun later in the same century in 1332 BC. Moran notes that some scholars believe one tablet, EA 16, may have been addressed to Tutankhamun's successor Ay.[9] However, this speculation appears improbable because the Amarna archives were closed by Year 2 of Tutankhamun, when this king transferred Egypt's capital from Amarna to Thebes.
Quotations and phrases
A small number of the Amarna letters are in the class of poetry. An example is EA 153, (EA is for 'el Amarna'). EA 153, entitled: "Ships on hold", from Abimilku of Tyre is a short, 20-line letter. Lines 6-8, and 9-11 are parallel phrases, each ending with "...before the troops of the king, my lord."-('before', then line 8, line 11). Both sentences are identical, and repetitive, with only the subject statement changing.
The entire corpus of Amarna letters has many standard phrases. It also has some phrases, and quotations used only once. Some are parables: (EA 252: "...when an ant is pinched (struck), does it not fight back and bite the hand of the man that struck it?"....)
Bird in a Cage
- A bird in a cage (Trap)—Rib-Hadda subcorpus of letters. (Rib-Hadda was trapped in Gubla-(Byblos), unable to move freely.)
"A brick may move.."
- A brick may move from under its partner, still I will not move from under the feet of the king, my lord.—Used in letters EA 266, 292, and 296. EA 292 by Adda-danu of Gazru.
"For the lack of a cultivator.."
- "For the lack of a cultivator, my field is like a woman without a husband."—Rib-Hadda letter EA 75
"Hale like the Sun..."
- "And know that the King-(pharaoh) is Hale like the Sun in the Sky. For his troops and his chariots in multitude all goes very well...."—See: Endaruta, for the Short Form; See: Milkilu, for a Long Form. Also found in EA 99: entitled: "From the Pharaoh to a vassal". (with addressee damaged)
"I looked this way, and I looked..."
- "I looked this way, and I looked that way, and there was no light. Then I looked towards the king, my lord, and there was light."—EA 266 by Tagi (Ginti mayor); EA 296 by Yahtiru.
"May the Lady of Gubla.."
- "May the Lady of Gubla grant power to the king, my lord."—varieties of the phrase in the Rib-Hadda letters
a pot held in pledge
7 times and 7 times again
- 7 times and 7 times—Over and over again
- 7 times plus 7—EA 189, See: "Etakkama of Kadesh"(title)-(Qidšu)
I fall ... 7 times and 7..."on the back and on the stomach"
- I fall, at the feet, ... 7 times and 7 times, "on the back and on the stomach"—EA 316, by Pu-Ba'lu, and used in numerous letters to pharaoh. See: Commissioner: Tahmašši.
when an ant is struck..
- "...when an ant is pinched (struck), does it not fight back and bite the hand of the man that struck it?"—A phrase used by Labayu defending his actions of overtaking cities, EA 252. Title: "Sparing one's enemies".
See also
- Abdi-Heba
- Labaya
- Ashur-uballit I
- Mutbaal
- Suwardata
- See the town of "Lakiša", Lachish, for "find" of one tablet, EA 333.
- Amarna letters–localities and their rulers
- List of artifacts significant to the Bible
- Mari Tablets
- New Chronology (Rohl)
- Foreign relations of Egypt during the Amarna period
Notes
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- ↑ Moran, William L. (1992). The Amarna Letters. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. xiv. ISBN 0-8018-4251-4.
- ↑ F.M.T. de Liagre Böhl, Die Sprache der Amarnabriefe, mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der Kanaanismen ('The language of the Amarna letters, with special attention to the Canaanisms'), Leipzig 1909.
- ↑ Eva von Dassow, 'Canaanite in Cuneiform', Journal of the American Oriental Society 124/4 (2004): 641–674. (pdf)
- ↑ Moran, p.xv
- ↑ British Museum Collection
- ↑ Moran, pp.xiii-xiv
- ↑ El-Amarna Tablets, article at West Semitic Research Project, website of University of Southern California accessed 2/8/15.
- ↑ Moran, p.xxxiv
- ↑ Moran, p.xxxv, n.123
References
- Smith, Janet (2011). Dust or dew: Immortality in the Ancient Near East and in Psalm 49. Eugene, OR, USA: Wipf and Stock. p. 286. ISBN 978-1-60899-661-2.
- Goren, Y., Finkelstein, I. & Na'aman, N., Inscribed in Clay - Provenance Study of the Amarna Tablets and Other Ancient Near Eastern Texts, Tel Aviv: Sonia and Marco Nadler Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University, 2004. ISBN 965-266-020-5
- Knudtzon, Jørgen Alexander (1915). Die El-Amarna-Tafeln 1. Leipzig.
- Knudtzon, Jørgen Alexander (1915). Die El-Amarna-Tafeln 2. Leipzig.
External links
- High-resolution images, from the Vorderasiatisches Museum Berlin.
- Mineralogical and Chemical Study of the Amarna Tablets - Provenance Study of the Amarna Tablets – University of Tel Aviv web page
- All 6 views on 1--Sample letter(Mesopotamian)
"The Tell el-Amarna Tablets". Catholic Encyclopedia. 1913.- Electronic version of the Amarna tablets, Akkadian in English transliteration.
- Text of some letters, archive.org
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