Leahy-Smith America Invents Act

Leahy-Smith America Invents Act
Great Seal of the United States
Long title To amend title 35, United States Code, to provide for patent reform.
Acronyms (colloquial) AIA
Nicknames Patent Reform
Enacted by the 112th United States Congress
Effective September 16, 2012
Citations
Public law 112–29
Statutes at Large 125 Stat. 284 through 125 Stat. 341 (57 pages)
Legislative history
  • Introduced in the Senate as "America Invents Act" (S. 23) by Patrick Leahy (D–VT) on January 25, 2011
  • Committee consideration by Judiciary Committee
  • Passed the Senate on March 8, 2011 (95–5)
  • Passed the House on June 23, 2011 (304-117) with amendment
  • Senate agreed to House amendment on September 8, 2011 (89-9)
  • Signed into law by President Barack Obama on September 16, 2011

The Leahy–Smith America Invents Act (AIA) is a United States federal statute that was passed by Congress and was signed into law by President Barack Obama on September 16, 2011. The law represents the most significant change to the U.S. patent system since 1952, and closely resembles previously proposed legislation in the Senate in its previous session (Patent Reform Act of 2009).[1]

Named for its lead sponsors, Sen. Patrick Leahy (D-VT) and Rep. Lamar Smith (R-TX),[2] the Act switches the U.S. patent system from a "first to invent" to a "first inventor to file" system, eliminates interference proceedings, and develops post-grant opposition. Its central provisions went into effect on September 16, 2012 and on March 16, 2013.

Provisions

First to file and grace period

U.S. patent

The law switched the U.S. rights to a patent from the previous "first-to-invent" system to a "first inventor-to-file" system for patent applications filed on or after March 16, 2013. The law also expanded the definition of prior art used in determining patentability. Actions and prior art that bar patentability under the Act include public use, sales, publications, and other disclosures available to the public anywhere in the world as of the filing date, other than publications by the inventor within one year of filing (inventor's "publication-conditioned grace period"), whether or not a third party also files a patent application. The law also notably expanded prior art to include foreign offers for sale and public uses.[3] Applicants that do not publish their inventions prior to filing receive no grace period.

Proceedings at the U.S. Patent Office for resolving priority contests among near-simultaneous inventors who both file applications for the same invention ("interference proceedings") were eliminated, because priority under the Act is determined based on filing date. An administrative proceeding—called a “derivation” proceeding, similar to that currently used within some interference proceedings—is provided to ensure that the first person to file the application is actually an original inventor, and that the application was not derived from another inventor.[4]

The AIA refers to the new regime as "First-Inventor-to-File (FITF)". This new regime operates differently from the "First-to-Invent" (FTI) regime previously in effect in the U.S. and the various "First-to-File" (FTF) regimes in place in the rest of the world. Different outcomes can occur under each of these three different regimes, depending on whether and how two different inventors publish or file patent applications.[5]

Opposition procedures

The Act revised and expanded post-grant opposition procedures. The Act retained existing ex parte reexamination;[6] added preissuance submissions by third parties;[7] expanded inter partes reexamination, which was renamed inter partes review;[8] and added post-grant review.[9]

Additional changes

The America Invents Act included the following changes:[10]

Savings from small entity (prior to act, based on small entity fees & includes 15% surcharge), to micro entity (post act):

USPTO Fee Type*BeforeAfterDifference
Basic Utility Fee $165$95$70
Utility Search Fee$270$155$115
Utility Exam Fee$110$63$48
Issue Fee$755$435$320
3.5 Year Fee$490$283$208
7.5 Year Fee$1240$713$528
11.5 Year Fee$2,055$1,183$873
TOTALS$5,085$2,925$2,160

% Net Savings for the new Micro Entity over Prior Small Entity Inventor = 42%

USPTO practice changes

Legislative history

Senator Patrick Leahy (D-VT) introduced similar bill S. 23 in the United States Senate on January 25, 2011, with seven co-sponsors (also members of the Judiciary Committee) that include Senators Coons (D-DE), Grassley (R-IA), Hatch (R-UT), Klobuchar (D-MN), Kyl (R-AZ), Lieberman (I-CT), and Sessions (R-AL). The Judiciary Committee unanimously approved the bill, and the United States Senate passed it March 8, 2011, by a vote of 95–5. H.R. 1249: was passed by the House Judiciary Committee on April 14, 2011, by a vote of 32-3.[17]

The House of Representatives passed their version of the Act (H.R. 1249) on June 23, 2011 by a vote of 304-117, with sixty-seven Republicans and fifty Democrats voting against the bill.[18] On September 8, 2011, the Senate approved the House version by an 89-9 bipartisan vote.[19] On September 16, 2011, President Barack Obama signed the bill into law at a ceremony at Thomas Jefferson High School for Science and Technology in Northern Virginia.[20]

Policy debate

Proponents of the bill argued that it may even the playing field by removing the tricks a well-funded infringer can currently use against a startup owning patented technology.

Proponents of the bill suggested that technology companies are subject to an unprecedented wave of patent lawsuits, stifling innovation and creating an overburdened and lethargic patent system. Advocates for the America Invents Act argued that it will create jobs, bolster innovation, streamline the patent system, reduce patent litigation, and keep the U.S. competitive globally.

Opponents of the Bill contended that it will lead to results similar to other nations' patent systems on which the bill is modeled — market incumbents will become further entrenched, the rate of startup formation will fall to levels in other countries, and access to angel and venture capital will fall to the levels of other countries, as described in the Impact of the Changes section below. A startup that relies on patents for protection from competitive risk, would, under the AIA, lose the protections of the previous regime to assemble the capital, strategic partners, and time for R&D and testing. The startup, exposed to the risk of copying by an established player in the marketplace, will be unable to attract venture capital, and so will lack the financial resources necessary to commercialize the startup’s invention and grow the company. The weakening of patent protection diminishes incentives for investments and development.[21]

In addition, opponents of the bill pointed out that the proposed revisions create greater options for accused infringers, and weaken the rights of patentees,[22][23][24] and that patent reform should remain in the hands of the court system. Opponents argue that patent reform should be confined to administrative reforms at the USPTO.[25] The time, effort and money that will be spent after issuance under the AIA on inter partes review and post-grant review would be better spent improving initial examination.[26] According to patent attorney and reexamination specialist Taraneh Maghame, “the root of the problem trying to be addressed by the reexamination process could be better solved if quality patents are issued in the first instance.”[26]

First Inventor to File and grace period

Proponents of the AIA submitted that it would simplify the application process and bring U.S. patent law into better harmony with the patent law of other countries, most of which operate on the "first-to-file" system.[27] Proponents also claimed that it would eliminate costly interference proceedings at the USPTO[28] and reduce U.S. applicants’ disadvantages in seeking patent rights outside of the United States.[29]

Opponents contended that a "first inventor-to-file" system favored larger firms with well-established internal patenting procedures, patent committees and in-house attorneys over small business inventors. They claimed that the Act would weaken patent protection only in America.[30][31] Opponents also submitted that it would (i) cause loss of patent rights due to new prior art published after the invention date but before the filing date, (ii) weaken the current grace period so it cannot be relied on, compelling inventors to behave as if there were no grace period,[32] (iii) replace "interferences" with costly derivation proceedings, which are generally even more expensive than interferences,[33] (iv) create a “race to the Patent Office” with every new idea, increasing the number of patent applications filed, with the attendant costs in attorney fees and diversion of company personnel to patent application preparation,[34] (v) increase examination backlogs at the USPTO, (vi) do nothing to reduce U.S. applicants’ costs of acquiring patents outside of the U.S., and (vii) decrease average patent quality.[35][36][37][38][39]

It was found that the proposed new regime behaves more like a new and unique kind of patent system with characteristics of both the FTI and FTF regimes, rather than a harmonized system sharing characteristics of both.[40]

Opponents pointed out that under First-to-Invent, a company with extensive resources could choose to practice First-to-File, by simply racing to the patent office as soon as every invention is conceived, eliminating any need to keep records of invention conception. Some pointed out that the changes switch the U.S. from a “first to conceive” system to a “first to reduce to practice.” Meanwhile, a company with limited resources could still use First-to-Invent, only filing patents that matter after funding is obtained. Under First-(Inventor)-to-File, the reverse is not true: all parties, regardless of their resources, must adhere to “race to the patent office”. This places small entities at an enormous disadvantage to large entities.

Many commenters raised the question of whether changing to FTF would be constitutional. Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution states: “To promote the Progress of ... useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to ... Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective ... Discoveries.” The term "inventor" means "the first to invent." The commenters' argument generally took this two-part form: (1) "To invent" means "to create something that has not existed before." (2) Therefore, by the standard definitions of our language, adoption of FTF would require amending the constitution. All peer-reviewed papers published in scholarly journals found this or similar problems.[41][42][43] For this reason, the new AIA is not a first to file, but a "first inventor to file system." It eliminates between two parties, each who invent independently, retrospective analysis of murky "inventorship" arguments. Instead, it rewards those who invent, and then file first.

Canada changed from FTI to FTF in 1989 and experienced a measurable "adverse effect on domestic-oriented industries and skewed the ownership structure of patented inventions towards large corporations, away from independent inventors and small businesses."[44]

Judicial review of reexamination decisions

Opponents noted that the AIA contained a provision that would deny the right of patent owners to obtain judicial review of adverse USPTO decisions in ex parte patent reexaminations by civil action in district court – a right that has existed under 35 U.S.C. § 306/ § 145 since the inception of reexamination in 1980. They contended that abolishing this right will leave direct appeal to the Federal Circuit as the only judicial recourse – an intolerable scenario for patent owners who need to rely on evidence that was unavailable during the administrative appeal stage.[45] Opponents contended that this provision will exacerbate ex parte reexamination abuses by creating an unprecedented end-run around Federal District Courts in potentially all patent disputes. They warned that alleged infringers would simply file ex parte reexamination requests with USPTO, receive a final agency decision subject only to Federal Circuit review, essentially bypassing Federal courts. Opponents feared that given the deference the Federal Circuit must accord the agency (Zurko), large number of prospective/alleged infringers would choose this new favorable path to challenge a patent, overwhelming the USPTO, causing much lengthier delays in reexamination and holding up patentees' patent rights for years.

Post-grant opposition

Advocates argued that allowing a challenge of a patent in the first year after the issuance or reissuance of a patent would improve patent quality by allowing third party inputs. Opponents note that: (a) inter partes review under the Bill[46] allows a third party to challenge the validity of any claim(s) in a patent *after* the first year; (b) re-exams are in fact used, not as an alternative to litigation, but rather as a supplement to litigation. In FY2008, 62% of current inter partes re-exams and 30% of ex parte re-exams were simultaneously in litigation;[47] (c) predatory corporations can and do file multiple post-grant oppositions against startup companies for the purpose of inflicting financial pain and through this practice have successfully extracted patent licensing and purchase agreements on favorable terms;[48] (d) the existing inter partes process in a contested case now takes 34 to 53 months for an un-appealed reexam (assuming no “rework” by the patent office and no secondary appeals to the BPAI, the Federal Circuit, or the Supreme Court), and 5 to 8 years for appealed cases.[49] When Congress created inter partes reexamination, it directed the USPTO to conduct these reexaminations with "special dispatch."[50] The Bill expands the existing inter partes procedure, adding discovery and a hearing in the Patent Trial and Appeal Board. Consequently, under the Bill, pendency of the inter partes procedure will likely increase, despite the legislative fiat requiring 18 month disposition;[51] and (e) the Bill all but requires a federal district court to stay a patent infringement suit copending with an inter partes review.[52] Because of the enormous costs and long pendency of inter partes review, the grant of a stay in a copending infringement suit could effectively be "game over" for the patent owner.[47]

Post Grant Review is available only if the challenger has not already initiated a civil action in District Court. Post Grant Review proceedings are to be conducted by the Patent Trial and Appeal Board, which will replace the Board of Patent Appeals and Interferences on September 16, 2012 for proceedings that commence on or after that date. Post Grant Review proceedings may be terminated either by settlement or by decision of the Board. There is also estoppel associated with the challenger at the USPTO, the District Courts and the International Trade Commission (ITC) in asserting invalidity on any ground that could have been reasonably raised during Post Grant Review.[53]

Impact of the changes

The use of reexamination, or the threat of its use, in patent infringement litigation is common.[54] “[G]amesmanship of the reexamination process has, in the view of some, become more the rule than the exception. Reportedly it has become ‘standard procedure’ that a defendant in patent litigation ‘take an aggressive stance by saying it plans to request a re-exam on the patent-in-suit or even all’ of the plaintiff's patents. The threat of reexamination is then used as leverage in licensing negotiations, intimidating patent-holders into settling out of court for lower amounts than those to which the value of their patents might entitle them.”[55] Reexamination requests from companies accused of patent infringement have recently more than tripled.[56] “Ironically, Congress intended that the reexamination process should have just the opposite effect: "Patent office reexamination will greatly reduce, if not end, the threat of legal costs being used to 'blackmail' such [patent-] holders into allowing patent infringements or being forced to license their patents for nominal fees."[57]

Critics argued that the AIA would prevent startup companies, a potent source of inventions, from raising capital and being able to commercialize their inventions. Typically, an inventor will have a sufficient conception of the invention and funding to file a patent application only after receiving investment capital. Before receiving investor funding, the inventor must have already conceived the invention, proven its functionality, and done sufficient market research to propose a detailed business plan. Investors will then scrutinize the business plan and evaluate competitive risk, which is inherently high for startup companies as new entrants into the market.[58] Opponents of the Bill contended that, if the bill becomes law, venture funding will be diverted to less risky investments.

Proponents of the Bill argued that revision of both post grant opposition and interference will help US inventors. They pointed out that a patent that has survived a post-grant review will be stronger than one without. Neither side put forward a cost-benefit balance showing that the added strength of these patents will compensate for the loss of access to venture capital, though the venture capitalists that have opined on the likely balance have concluded that the post-grant review will reduce access to capital more than it increases patent strength.[59]

Proponents also argued that the Act provides numerous benefits to small businesses such as fast-track patent examination, fee reductions, and expanded prior user rights.[60]

Other issues

Critics of the bill expressed concern, that the administration has been guided by the same people who previously lobbied for patent reform on behalf of IBM and Microsoft, and that their appointments were a violation of the Obama Administration's "Revolving Door Ban". USPTO Director David Kappos represented IBM, Marc Berejka (Senior Policy Advisor, Office of the Secretary, U.S. Department of Commerce) lobbied on behalf of Microsoft, and Secretary of Commerce Gary Locke, to whom the USPTO reported until Locke was made Ambassador to China on August 1, 2011, also has extensive ties to Microsoft.[61]

Opponents raised the concern that the bill could cause the USA to lose its leadership position in innovation, particularly as a result of the adverse impact on small companies, who were unrepresented in the negotiations leading up to this bill.[62] Also, critics complained that this bill will not do enough to curb “non-practising entities” from engaging in purportedly overly aggressive behaviors.[63]

Critics pointed out that the new bill fails to address a glaring issue that will seemingly continue to exist under the new system: the extensive backlog of existing patent applications. Instead of hiring more examiners to process this backlog, "...Congress chose to multiply the alternative dispute-resolution procedures at the PTO, giving the office more work to do without a guarantee of more money. The result was a muddle as well as a missed opportunity."[63]

Amendments

H.R.9 (Innovation Act)

In May 2015, the House Judiciary Committee approved with a majority vote the advancement of the bipartisan Innovation Act for later consideration on the Senate and House floor. H.R.9 is intended to amend title 35, United States Code, and the Leahy-Smith America Invents Act to make improvements and technical corrections. In particular, this bill aims at reducing patent trolls, lengthy IP litigations and frivolous attempts by legal holders of patents through limitations on Post Grant Reviews. The Innovation Act would also change fee requirements, among other modifications, in order to make the plaintiff financially responsible for such attempts, which often are viewed as extortions rather than disputes of the patent claim based on technological considerations. In February 2016, the Senate Committee on Small Business and Entrepreneurship held a hearing on H.R.9 and also approved it for consideration.[64]

S.1137 (Patent Act)

In June 2015, the Committee also approved the Patent act for advancement to the House and Senate floor after a markup session was held. S. 1137 is also an intended amendment to the America Invents act, and has a similar purpose to H.R.9 by addressing the disclosure of financial interests and technical details by the patent holder. The bill would require the patent owners to supply specific information on the type and extend of the patent claim before filing suit in a district court.[65]

Notes

  1. ↑ Goldman, David (June 24, 2011). "Patent reform is finally on its way". CNNMoney.com. Retrieved August 16, 2011.
  2. ↑ "Jackson, Leahy, Smith and Ryan named policymakers of the year". Politico. November 29, 2011. Retrieved February 1, 2012.
  3. ↑ Auvil, Steven. "5 things med tech companies need to know about the Leahy-Smith America Invents Act". Retrieved November 30, 2011.
  4. ↑ "The Patent Reform Bill". Govtrack.us. Retrieved June 24, 2011.
  5. ↑ Brad Pedersen and Justin Woo. "The "matrix" for changing first-to-invent: an experimental investigation into proposed changes in U.S. patent law" (PDF). Retrieved September 20, 2011.
  6. ↑ 35 U.S.C. § 302.
  7. ↑ H.R. 1249, §7.
  8. ↑ H.R. 1249, §5 modifying 35 U.S.C. §§ 311–320.
  9. ↑ H.R. 1249, §5 adding 35 U.S.C. §§ 321–330
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 http://www.uspto.gov/aia_implementation/bills-112hr1249eh.pdf
  11. ↑ Sarskas, S Edward; Michael Best & Friedrich LLP (April 6, 2011). "The Federal Circuit Court of Appeals Clarifies the Pleading Standard for False Patent Marking Claims Under 35 U.S.C. § 292". The National Law Review. Cite uses deprecated parameter |coauthors= (help)
  12. ↑ Patent Reform Becomes Law: The Leahy-Smith America Invents Act
  13. ↑ Jan Wolfe, Patent Reform's Reduced 'Best Mode' Requirement Creates Uncertainty, law.com, October 10, 2011. Consulted on October 30, 2011.
  14. ↑ http://www.uspto.gov/news/pr/2011/11-50.jsp
  15. ↑ http://patentlyo.com/patent/2012/10/did-the-aia-eliminate-secret-prior-art.html
  16. ↑ http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2013-02-14/pdf/2013-03450.pdf
  17. ↑ "Mark-up of HR 1249 with Managers and Committee Amendments as Reported out of House Judiciary Committee" (PDF). Retrieved June 24, 2011.
  18. ↑ "FINAL VOTE RESULTS FOR ROLL CALL 491". Office of the Clerk of the House of Representatives. Retrieved June 24, 2011.
  19. ↑ Senate Approves Patent Reform Bill
  20. ↑ Palfrey, Quentin (September 16, 2011). "The America Invents Act: Turning Ideas into Jobs". The White House. The White House Blog. Retrieved July 4, 2015.
  21. ↑ Gary M. Lauder, Venture Capital - The Buck Stops Where?, "Medical Innovation & Business Journal", Vol. 2 - Issue 2 (Summer 2010) p. 14–19"
  22. ↑ Gene Quinn, IP Watchdog, "Unions Oppose Patent Reform Legislation Too." March 10, 2009.
  23. ↑ Scott Jagow, Marketplace, "The Battle over Patents." March 10, 2009.
  24. ↑ ScienceNOW Daily News, "A Fight over Open Access and Patent Reform." March 10, 2009.
  25. ↑ Ron D. Katznelson, Patent Reforms Must Focus On The U.S. Patent Office, "Medical Innovation & Business Journal, Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 77-87 (Summer 2010)"
  26. 1 2 Interview with Taraneh Maghame, http://reexamcenter.com/2009/10/the-reexamination-center-executive-interview-taraneh-maghame. Retrieved June 7, 2011.
  27. ↑ Fox, Jeffrey L. (November 8, 2011). "America Invents Act receives cautious welcome". Nature Biotechnology 29: 953–954. doi:10.1038/nbt1111-953. Retrieved December 1, 2011.
  28. ↑ Rondeau, George. ""America Invents Act" patent law overhaul: the benefits and the drawbacks". Lexology. Retrieved December 1, 2011.
  29. ↑ Yip, Charles. "Patent law reform - first-to-file". Lexology. Retrieved December 1, 2011.
  30. ↑ Senator Dianne Feinstein Remarks on first-to-file, U.S. Senate, March 2, 2011.Senator Feinstein on Patent Reform - YouTube
  31. ↑ "Repeal of the American Grace Period". Retrieved June 24, 2011.
  32. ↑ "Filing-Date-Focused-System – The Key is the Scope of the Grace Period, 3/2/11 PatentlyO Blog". Patentlyo.com. March 2, 2011. Retrieved June 24, 2011.
  33. ↑ Charles L. Gholz, Would Derivation Proceedings Be The Same as Derivation Interferences?, Medical Innovation & Business: Summer 2010 - Volume 2 - Issue 2 - p 39–42, http://journals.lww.com/medinnovbusiness/Fulltext/2010/06010/Would_Derivation_Proceedings_Be_The_Same_As.7.aspx . The issue is similar in the U.K. – in 2006, in IDA Ltd. v. University of Southampton, [2006] EWCA Civ. 145, http://www.bailii.org/ew/cases/EWCA/Civ/2006/145.html, the court observed “Many disputes of fact are likely to arise – who thought of what and who suggested what to whom are the sort of issues where perceptions after the event are all too likely to differ … Parties to these disputes should realise, that if fully fought, they can be protracted, very very expensive and emotionally draining. … very often development or exploitation of the invention under dispute will be stultified by the dead hand of unresolved litigation.”
  34. ↑ "Steve Perlman's letter to Senator Feinstein" (PDF). Retrieved June 24, 2011.
  35. ↑ Small Business Coalition on Patent Legislation letter to SBA Administrator, December 15, 2009.
  36. ↑ "Startup companies' letter to Senate Leadership". Retrieved June 24, 2011.
  37. ↑ Boundy & Marquardt, Patent Reform’s Weakened Grace Period: Its Effects On Startups, Small Companies, University Spin-Offs And Medical Innovators, "Medical Innovation & Business Journal, vol. 2 no. 2 (Summer 2010)"
  38. ↑ ""Innovation and IP in Today’s Business Environment," a presentation by Steve Perlman, a prolific inventor and successful entrepreneur, on how the proposed legislation maps to the practice of invention." (PDF). Retrieved June 24, 2011.
  39. ↑ "The Rush to a First-to-File Patent System in the United States: Is a Globally Standardized Patent Reward System Really Beneficial to Patent Quality and Administrative Efficiency?, Minn. Journal of Law, Science & Technology, VOLUME 7 ISSUE 2 (May 2006)" (PDF). Retrieved June 24, 2011.
  40. ↑ "Comparison of the Current U.S. First-to-Invent System with the First-Inventor-To-File System Proposed in the Patent Reform Act of 2011 (S.23)". PatentlyO Blog. March 2, 2011. Retrieved June 24, 2011.
  41. ↑ "Base Macro" (PDF). Retrieved June 24, 2011.
  42. ↑ The Patent Reform Act’s Proposed First-To-File Standard: Needed Reform or Constitutional Blunder?, in THE JOHN MARSHALL REVIEW OF INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY LAW, 2006
  43. ↑ Compilation of all papers on FTF constitutionality published between 2001-2009
  44. ↑ "Does it Matter Who Has the Right to Patent: First-to-Invent or First-to-File? Lessons from Canada," April 2009, NBER Working Paper No. w14926
  45. ↑ Charles E. Miller & Daniel P. Archibald, Attenuated Judicial Review of Patent and Trademark Office Decisions: “Technical Amendment,” or Stacking The Deck Against Inventors? Medical Innovation & Business Journal, vol. 2 no. 2 (Summer 2010), pp. 89-93.
  46. ↑ H.R. 1249, §5 amends 35 U.S.C. § 311
  47. 1 2 Guest Post: Hot Topics in US Patent Reexamination
  48. ↑ Avistar, 2009 Annual Report, p.F-26, http://files.shareholder.com/downloads/AVSR/1239617659x0x386332/36FFB1CC-FE65-4E85-B625-C7CF8BB4CDEB/2009_Annual_Report_FINAL.pdf. Retrieved April 28, 2011.
  49. ↑ http://www.iam-magazine.com/blog/IAMBlogInterPartesReexamWhitepaper.pdf.
  50. ↑ 35 U.S.C. § 314(c).
  51. ↑ H.R. 1249, §7 amendment to 35 U.S.C. § 316(a)(12).
  52. ↑ H.R. 1249, §5 amendment to 35 U.S.C. § 330(1).
  53. ↑ Vedder Price P.C. (April 12, 2012). "Summary of the America Invents Act". The National Law Review. Retrieved September 14, 2012.
  54. ↑ "List of Recent Inter Partes Reviews - Docket Alarm".
  55. ↑ Mercado, Raymond A. (2011). The Use and Abuse of Patent Reexamination: Sham Petitioning Before the USPTO. 12 Columbia Science and Technology Law Review 93.
  56. ↑ Joseph Rosenbloom, The Reexamination Gamble, IP L. & Bus., July 1, 2008, at 31.
  57. ↑ H.R. Rep. No. 96-1307, pt. 1, at 4 (1980), reprinted in 1980 U.S.C.C.A.N., at 6463.” quoted in Mercado, Raymond A. (2011). The Use and Abuse of Patent Reexamination: Sham Petitioning Before the USPTO. 12 Columbia Science and Technology Law Review 93, n66.
  58. ↑ Nesheim, John L. (2000). High Tech Start Up, The Complete Handbook for Creating Successful New High Tech Companies, New York: The Free Press.
  59. ↑ John Neis, "Post-Grant Review-Our Next Nightmare? VC Perspective", Medical Innovation & Business, Summer 2010, Volume 2, Issue 2, pp.43–45, http://journals.lww.com/medinnovbusiness/Fulltext/2010/06010/Post_Grant_Review_Our_Next_Nightmare__VC.8.aspx. Retrieved June 20, 2011.
  60. ↑ Koenig, John. "American Invents Act is Better for Small Business".
  61. ↑ "Critics raise concerns at Commerce," in Politico 11/2/09
  62. ↑ Two Views of Innovation, Colliding in Washington; NY Times, January 13, 2008, By John Markoff
  63. 1 2 Intellectual property - Many patents, still pending; The Economist, September 10, 2011
  64. ↑ H.R.9 — 114th Congress (2015-2016). Retrieved March 4, 2016.
  65. ↑ Summary: S.1137 — 114th Congress (2015-2016). Retrieved March 4, 2016.

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