Islam in Australia

Part of a series on
Islam in Australia



History

Early history
Afghan cameleers
Battle of Broken Hill
Contemporary society
Halal certification in Australia
Islamophobia in Australia

Mosques

List of mosques
Lakemba Mosque · Auburn Gallipoli Mosque
Central Adelaide Mosque • Marree Mosque

Organisations

Islamic organisations in Australia
AFIC · ANIC • LMA · IMAA · IISNA • ICQ •
ICV • MWA

Groups

Afghan • Albanian • Arab • Bangladeshi
Bosnian • Indian • Indonesian • Iranian
Iraqi • Lebanese • Malay • Pakistani •
Turkish

Events

National Mosque Open Day

People
Prominent Australian Muslims
Ibrahim Abu Mohamed

Islam in Australia is a minority religious affiliation. According to the 2011 census, 476,291 people, or 2.2% of the total Australian population, were Muslims.[1] This made Islam the fourth largest religious grouping, after all forms of Christianity (61.1%), irreligion (22.9%), and Buddhism (2.5%). Demographers attribute Muslim community growth trends during the most recent census period to relatively high birth rates, and recent immigration patterns.[2][3] Adherents of Islam represent the majority of the population in Cocos (Keeling) Islands. While the vast majority of Muslims in Australia belong to the Sunni and Shia denominations, there are Ahmadiyya and Sufi minorities.[4]

While the Australian Muslim community is defined largely by religious belonging, it is fragmented racially, ethnically, culturally and linguistically.[5] Members of the Australian Muslim community thus also espouse parallel non-religious ethnic identities with related non-Muslim counterparts, either within Australia or abroad.[6]

History

Prior to 1860

Indonesian Muslims trepangers from the southwest corner of Sulawesi visited the coast of northern Australia, "from at least the eighteenth century"[7] to collect and process trepang, a marine invertebrate prized for its culinary and medicinal values in Chinese markets. Remnants of their influence can be seen in the culture of some of the northern Aboriginal peoples. Regina Ganter, an associate professor at Griffith University, says, "Staying on the safe grounds of historical method ... the beginning of the trepang industry in Australia [can be dated] to between the 1720s and 1750s, although this does not preclude earlier, less organised contact." Ganter also writes "the cultural imprint on the Yolngu people of this contact is everywhere: in their language, in their art, in their stories, in their cuisine."[8] According to anthropologist John Bradley from Monash University, the contact between the two groups was a success: "They traded together. It was fair - there was no racial judgement, no race policy." Even into the early 21st century, the shared history between the two peoples is still celebrated by Aboriginal communities in Northern Australia as a period of mutual trust and respect.[9]

Others who have studied this period have come to a different conclusion regarding the relationship between the Aboriginal people and the visiting trepangers. Anthropologist Ian McIntosh[10] has said that the initial effects of the Macassan fishermen were "terrible", which resulted in "turmoil"[11]:65–67 with the extent of Islamic influence being "indeterminate".[11]:76 In another paper McIntosh concludes, "strife, poverty and domination . . is a previously unrecorded legacy of contact between Aborigines and Indonesians."[12]:138 A report prepared by the History Department of the Australian National University says that the Macassans appear to have been welcomed initially, however relations deteriorated when, "aborigines began to feel they were being exploited . . leading to violence on both sides".[13]:81–82

A number of "Mohammedans" were listed in the musters of 1802, 1811, 1822, and the 1828 census, and a small number of Muslims arrived during the convict period. Beyond this, Muslims generally are not thought to have settled in large numbers in other regions of Australia until 1860.[14]:10

Muslims were among the earliest settlers of Norfolk Island while the island was used as a British penal colony in the early 19th century. They arrived from 1796, having been employed on British ships. They left following the closure of the penal colony and moved to Tasmania. The community left no remnants; only seven permanent residents of the island identified themselves as "non-Christian" in a 2006 census.[15][16][17]

1860 to 1900

19th-century mosque in cemetery, Bourke, New South Wales
The grave of an Afghan cameleer

Among the early Muslims were the "Afghan" camel drivers who migrated to and settled in Australia during the mid to late 19th century. Between 1860 and the 1890s a number of Central Asians came to Australia to work as camel drivers. Camels were first imported into Australia in 1840, initially for exploring the arid interior (see Australian camel), and later for the camel trains that were uniquely suited to the demands of Australia's vast deserts. The first camel drivers arrived in Melbourne, Victoria, in June 1860, when eight Muslims and Hindus arrived with the camels for the Burke and Wills expedition. The next arrival of camel drivers was in 1866 when 31 men from Rajasthan and Baluchistan arrived in South Australia with camels for Thomas Elder. Although they came from several countries, they were usually known in Australia as 'Afghans' and they brought with them the first formal establishment of Islam in Australia.[18]

Cameleers settled in the areas near Alice Springs and other areas of the Northern Territory and inter-married with the Indigenous population. The Adelaide, South Australia to Darwin, Northern Territory, railway is named The Ghan (short for The Afghan) in their memory.[19]

The first mosque in Australia was built in 1861 at Marree, South Australia.[20] The Great Mosque of Adelaide was built in 1888 by the descendants of the Afghan cameleers.

During the 1870s, Muslim Malay divers were recruited through an agreement with the Dutch to work on Western Australian and Northern Territory pearling grounds. By 1875, there were 1800 Malay divers working in Western Australia. Most returned to their home countries.

One of the earliest recorded Islamic festivals celebrated in Australia occurred on 23 July 1884 when 70 Muslims assembled for Eid prayers at Albert Park in Melbourne. “During the whole service the worshippers wore a remarkably reverential aspect.”[21]

1900 to present

In the early 20th century, immigration of Muslims to Australia was restricted to those of European descent, as non-Europeans were denied entry to Australia under the provisions of the White Australia policy. In the 1920s and 1930s Albanian Muslims, whose European heritage made them compatible with the White Australia Policy, immigrated to the country. Albanian Muslims built the first mosque in Shepparton, Victoria in 1960 and the first mosque in Melbourne in 1963.

Modern-day replica of an ice cream van owned by one of the terrorists involved in the Battle of Broken Hill in 1915.

Notable events involving Australian Muslims during this early period include what has been described either as an act of war by the Ottoman Empire, or the earliest terrorist attack planned against Australian civilians.[22] The attack was carried out at Broken Hill, New South Wales, in 1915, in what was described as the Battle of Broken Hill. Two Afghans who pledged allegiance to the Ottoman Empire shot and killed four Australians and wounded seven others before being killed by the police.[23]

Increased immigration

The perceived need for population growth and economic development in Australia led to the broadening of Australia's immigration policy in the post-World War II period. This allowed for the acceptance of a number of displaced Muslims who began to arrive from Europe mainly from the Balkans, especially from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Between 1967 and 1971, approximately 10,000 Turkish citizens settled in Australia under an agreement between Australia and Turkey.

Also, from the 1970s onwards, there was a significant shift in the government's attitude towards immigration. Instead of trying to make newer foreign nationals assimilate and forgo their heritage, the government became more accommodating and tolerant of differences by adopting a policy of multiculturalism.

The Chullora Greenacre Mosque

Larger-scale Muslim migration began in 1975 with the migration of Lebanese Muslims, which rapidly increased during the Lebanese Civil War from 22,311 or 0.17% of the Australian population in 1971, to 45,200 or 0.33% in 1976. Lebanese Muslims are still the largest and highest-profile Muslim group in Australia, although Lebanese Christians form a majority of Lebanese Australians, outnumbering their Muslim counterparts at a 6-to-4 ratio.

By the beginning of the 21st-century, Muslims from more than sixty countries had settled in Australia. While a very large number of them come from Bosnia, Turkey, and Lebanon, there are Muslims from Indonesia, Malaysia, Iran, Fiji, Albania, Sudan, Somalia, Egypt, the Palestinian territories, Iraq, Afghanistan, Pakistan and Bangladesh, among others. At the time of the 2011 census, 476,000 Australians (representing 2.2 percent of the population) reported Islam as their religion.[24]

Since the 1990s

Trade and educational links have been developed between Australia and several Muslim countries. Muslim students from countries such as Malaysia, Indonesia, India, Bangladesh and Pakistan, are among the thousands of international students studying in Australian universities.

A number of Australian Arabs experienced anti-Arab backlash during the First Gulf War. Newspapers received numerous letters calling for Arab Australians to "prove their loyalty" or "go home", and some Arab Australian Muslim women wearing hijab head coverings were reportedly harassed in public. The Australian government's Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission included accounts of racial harassment experienced by some Australian Arabs in their 1991 report on racism in Australia.[14]:11–13

On a few occasions in the 2000s and 2010s, tensions have flared between Australian Muslims and the general population. The Sydney gang rapes was a much reported set of incidents in 2000; a group of Lebanese men sexually assaulted non-Muslim women. In 2005, tensions between Muslims and non-Muslims in the Cronulla area of Sydney led to violent rioting; the incident resulted in mass arrests and criminal prosecution. In 2012, Muslims protesting in central Sydney against Innocence of Muslims, an anti-Islam film trailer, resulted in rioting.[25] There was an increase in anti-Muslim sentiment in the aftermath of the Sydney hostage crisis on 15–16 December 2014, including a threat made against a mosque in Sydney.[26] However, the Muslim community also received support from the Australian public through a social media campaign.[27][28]

The founding president of the Australian Federation of Islamic Councils has said that with moderate Muslims being sidelined by those promoting more fundamentalist views, there is a need to be more careful in regard to potential Australian immigrants. Keysar Trad has said moderate Muslims need to take back control.[29] An article in The Australian in May 2015 opined, "Most Muslims want the peace and prosperity that comes from an Islam that coexists with modernity; it is a fanatical fringe that seeks to impose a fabricated medieval Islam". It describes Dr Jamal Rifi as a brave insider who is working to assist "the cause of good Muslims who are struggling for the soul of Islam".[30]

Schools of jurisprudence in Australia

Most Australian Muslims are Sunni, with Shia then Sufi and Ahmadiyya as minorities.[31]

Sunni

Adherents of the Sunni denomination of Islam are concentrated in the suburb of Lakemba and surrounding areas such as Punchbowl, Wiley Park, Bankstown and Auburn.

In Australia there are also groups associated with the "hardline" Salafi branch of Sunni Islam, including the Islamic Information and Services Network of Australasia[32] and Ahlus Sunnah Wal Jamaah Association (Australia) (ASWJA).[33] While their numbers are small,[34] the ASWJA is said to "punch above its weight".[5]

Dawateislami is "a global non-political movement"[35] with adherents in Australia.

Shia

Shi'a commemorating Ashura outside the Opera House, Sydney.

The Shi'a denomination of Islam is centred in the St George, Campbelltown, Fairfield, Auburn and Liverpool regions of Sydney, with the al-Zahra Mosque, built in Arncliffe in 1983,[36] and the Al-Rasool Al-A'dham Mosque in Bankstown. In 2008, the community numbered 30,000 followers nationally.[37]

In November 2014, up to 3,000 Shi'a Muslims marched in Sydney on the annual Ashura Procession to mark the death of the prophet's grandson.[38][39] In November 2015 there was Ashura march in Sydney[40] and a Victorian school observed Muharram.[41]

Alawites

There are approximately 20,000 Alawites from Turkish, Syrian and Lebanese backgrounds.[42] They have at least one school called Al Sadiq College, with campuses in the Sydney suburbs of Yagoona and Greenacre.[43] There is also a population of the related, though distinct, Alevis.[44]

Druze

Druze, which is an 11th-century branch of Ismaili Shiites,[45] is reported to have thousands of followers living in Australia.[46] There is also an Ismaili population of unspecified size.[47][48]

Dawoodi Bohra

Dawoodi Bohra is a small Ismaili Shia sect[49][50] with its Sydney Jamaat located in Auburn NSW.[51]

Sufi

There are communities of Sufis, estimated to number about 5,000,[52] most notably the Ahbash, who operate under the name Islamic Charitable Projects Association.[53] They run Al Amanah College, as well as a mosque and a community radio station in suburban Sydney.[54] There have been tensions between the Ahbash and other Muslim communities.[55][56]

Ahmadiyya

Baitul Huda Ahmadiyya Mosque, Sydney located in Marsden Park.

The Ahmadiyya[57][58] community is reported to have 3,000 followers in Australia.[59] There are 4 Ahmadiyya mosques in Australia in Sydney; Masjid Bait-ul Huda, Melbourne; Masjid Bait-ul Salam, Brisbane; Masjid Bait-ul Masroor and Adelaide; Masjid Mahmood. The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community has its headquarters located at the Masjid Bait-ul Huda, Marsden Park to the west of Sydney.[60]

The leaders of the Ahmadiyya community condemn terrorism, support law enforcement authorities,[61] advocate speaking English and being loyal to Australia.[62] Ahmadiyya Muslim Association Australia national spokesman Aziz Omer said, "We are loyal to Australia and we want our kids to be loyal to Australia", with association members delivering 500,000 Loyalty to Homeland leaflets.[63]

Ahmadi Muslims have been subject to various forms of religious persecution and discrimination.

Sectarian tensions

Saudi Arabia has been heavily involved in funding Australian Islamic institutions, with estimates up to US$100 million.[64] This has generated tensions between Australian Muslim organisations and has raised concerns in the wider Australian community.[65][66][67]

Conflict between religious groups in the Middle East are reflecting as tensions within the Australian community[68][69][70][71] and in the schools.[72]

Religious life

The Australian Muslim community has built a number of mosques and Islamic schools, and a number of imams and clerics act as the community's spiritual and religious leaders. In 1988, the Australian Federation of Islamic Councils (AFIC) appointed Sheikh Taj El-Din Hilaly as the first Grand Mufti of Australia and New Zealand. In 2007, Hilaly was succeeded by Fehmi Naji in June 2007[73] who was succeeded by the current Grand Mufti, Ibrahim Abu Mohamed in September 2011.[74]

Sunshine Mosque located in Melbourne serves the Turkish Cypriot community.

Fatwas, edicts based on Islamic jurisprudence which aim to provide "guidance to Muslim Australians in the personal, individual and private spheres of life",[75] are issued by various Australian Islamic authorities.[76][77]

Organisations

A number of organisations and associations are run by the Australian Islamic community including mosques, private schools and charities and other community groups and associations. Broad community associations which represent large segments of the Australian Muslim public are usually termed "Islamic councils". Some organisations are focused on providing assistance and support for specific sectors within the community, such as women.

Two organisations with strong political emphasis are Hizb ut-Tahrir[78] which describes itself as a, "political party whose ideology is Islam"[79][80] and Ahlus Sunnah Wal Jamaah Association (ASWJA).[81][82]

A number of financial institutions have developed Sharia-compliant finance products,[83] with university courses leading to Islamic financial qualifications also being established.[84] Other Australian Islamic organisations have been set up to manage sharia-compliant investments, superannuation,[85] Islamic wills[86] and zakat management.[87][88]

Halal certification

There are close to two dozen Halal certification authorities in Australia. Halal meat and meat product exports to the Middle East and Southeast Asia have greatly increased from the 1970s onwards; this expansion was due in part to efforts of the AFIC.[14]:151 Halal certification has been criticised by anti-Halal campaigners who argue that the practice funds the growth of Islam, results in added costs, a requirement to officially certify intrinsically-halal foods and with consumers required to subsidise a particular religious belief.[89]

An inquiry by an Australian Senate committee, which concluded in December 2015, found the current system is "lacklustre" and made recommendations for improvement.[90] It found there was no evidence to support claims that the profits of halal certification are used to fund terrorism.[91][92] The report recognised that halal certification has economic benefits for Australia because of increased export opportunities.[90] It recommended that the federal government increase its oversight of halal certifiers to address fraudulent conduct, with halal products to be clearly labelled and for meat products sourced from animals subject to religious slaughter, to be specifically labelled.[93]

Issues

Concerns and contemporary issues facing the Australian Muslim community include rates of unemployment, the rights of women, concerns over Islamism and Islamic radicalism, among others.

Islamic preachers and clerics in Australia have been covered in the Australian press on account of the messages they have delivered publicly to the Muslim community or have otherwise shared with others in public settings. In some instances, various ideas and viewpoints espoused by these preachers have been subject of public or internal debate.[94] Statements viewed as misogynistic and radically paternalistic have come under criticism.[95]

Radical Sunni Islam

Sunni Muslim protest in Hyde Park, Sydney.

A number of incidents have highlighted the issues associated with radical Sunni Islam in Australia, including terrorism and militant activity.[96]

Several foreign Sunni terrorist organisations have sponsored the establishment of cells in Australia, including Lashkar-e-Taiba,[97][98] and Jemaah Islamiah.[99][100]:111[101]:38 Al-Shabaab is believed to have been behind the Holsworthy Barracks terror plot.[102][103][104][105] An man known as "Ahmed Y" established a small militant group in Australia in 2001 and advocated the idea of establishing an Islamic State in Australia.[106]:14 Groups led by Abdul Nacer Benbrika and Khaled Cheikho were active in Melbourne and Sydney, respectively, until police arrested their members in 2005.[107][108] Instances of domestic terror inspired by radical political Islam include the plots by Faheem Khalid Lodhi, Abdul Nacer Benbrika and Joseph T. Thomas.

The Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), proscribed by the government as a terrorist organisation,[109] has targeted Australian Muslims for recruitment.[110] Making use of social media, recruiters target those vulnerable to radicalisation,[111][112] and encourage local jihad activities.[113][114] Some of those targeted have been minors, including a teenager who was arrested in Melbourne in May 2015 for plotting to detonate home-made bombs.[115] In June 2014, the government claimed that roughly 150 Australians had been recruited to fight in the conflicts in Syria and Iraq.[116][117] A list released in April 2015 showed that most were young males who have come from a range of occupations, including students.[118] It was also reported at the time that 20 Australians had been killed fighting overseas for terror groups,[119] with 249 suspected jihadists prevented from leaving Australia.[120] The Border Force Counter-Terrorism Unit, tasked with stopping jihadists from leaving the country,[121] had cancelled more than 100 passports by the end of March 2015.[112] Several jihadists have expressed the desire to return to Australia,[122] but Prime Minister Tony Abbott has said that any who do would be prosecuted on their arrival.[123][124]

In December 2015 the Director General of ASIO Duncan Lewis stated that the number of Australians seeking to travel overseas to fight with groups such as ISIS had "plateaued a bit" due to better awareness of the issue among the Islamic community, few young Australians being attracted to ISIS and improvements to the speed with which passports could be cancelled. He also stated that a "tiny, tiny" proportion of Australian Muslims were influenced by ISIS. At this time the government believed there were around 110 Australians fighting with extremist groups, which was slightly lower than previous levels, and 44 Australians had been killed in Syria.[125]

In an Australia-wide survey published in November 2015, which was based on 1,573 interviews, which asked, "What is the likelihood that Islamic State will carry out a large scale terrorist attack in Australia?" 24% of the respondents said "it is inevitable", 23% said "very likely" and 29% said "likely". Greens' voters were least concerned about an attack.[126][127]

Responses

A number of forums and meetings have been held about the problem of extremist groups or ideology within the Australian Islamic community.[128] After the London bombings in 2005, Prime Minister John Howard established a Muslim Community Reference Group to assist governmental relations with the Muslim community.

Sydney's Muslim leaders, including Keysar Trad, have condemned the actions of suicide bombers and denounced ISIS.[129] The Shia community in Australia have also expressed their concern regarding ISIS.[38][130] In February 2015, Ameer Ali former president of the Australian Federation of Islamic Councils called on religious leaders to oppose Islamic State as, "I haven't heard so far any single imam in this country that has named IS and condemned it."[131]

Glenn Mohammed a Muslim lawyer has written, "Muslims need to be able to discuss these issues openly and denounce barbaric behaviour. Instead, we choose to remain silent and then criticise a government that tries to make Australia safer."[132] Psychiatrist Tanveer Ahmed has examined underlying causes and has identified the significance of issues relating to 'family' and to 'denial'. He has said, "Muslim youths have unique difficulties in coming to terms with their identity, especially when they have conflicting value systems at home compared with school or work".[133]

In September 2014, the external affairs secretary of Australia's Ahmadiyya muslims, urged the Islamic community to denounce ISIS, "because they know very well that ISIS is responsible for brutal, reprehensible killings of Muslims in Syria and Iraq".[134]

Peter Jennings, Executive Director of the Australian Strategic Policy Institute has said Australian Muslim leaders need to recognise that there are a "disturbing number of radicalised ideologues" who do not believe Islam is peaceful. He says, "some dramatic self-healing is needed".[135]

In May 2015, the Abbott Government committed a further AU$450 million to fight home-grown terrorism.[136]

Muslim leaders have criticised the current Grand Mufti of Australia, following the Muftis response to the November 2015 Paris attacks.[137] Ameer Ali has said, "The problem I have with the Mufti is he cannot communicate in English. That means he has to rely on the people around him."[138] Anthony Albanese described the Grand Mufti's contribution as "completely unacceptable".[139] Josh Frydenberg along with other senior politicians have urged moderate Islamic leaders to speak with one voice against extremism.[140]

The founder of Australia’s biggest Muslim media organisation Ahmed Kilani is seeking a "revolution" within the Islamic community and has called upon Muslim leaders to unequivocally repudiate violence conducted in the name of Islam.[141] Dr Recep Dogan of Charles Sturt University’s Centre for Islamic Sciences and Civilisation, said as Muslim leaders in Australia do not seem to be engaged at a community level.[142]

During an interview on ABC Lateline program, the authors of a book entitled Islam and the Future of Tolerance, Sam Harris, an atheist and neuroscientist, and Maajid Nawaz, a former Hizb-ut-Tahrir member, argued that Islam has failed to modernise. Harris said, "We have a task ahead of us, a monumental task ahead of us, and that is to begin the process of adapting, reinterpreting our scriptures for the modern day and age." [143] Politician Andrew Hastie has said, "Modern Islam needs to cohere with the Australian way of life, our values and institutions. In so far as it doesn’t, it needs reform."[144] Former federal Treasurer, Peter Costello has said, "Islamic scholars need to tell would-be jihadis, why these difficult sections of the Koran and the Hadiths," which may have been acceptable in the 7th century, "are not to be taken literally and not to be followed today".[145]

Former Prime Minister, Tony Abbott has said, "there needs to be a concerted ‘hearts and minds’ campaign against the versions of Islam that make excuses for terrorists".[146][147]

However, Hizb ut-Tahrir (Australia) spokesman, Uthman Badar, said, "Islam is not up for negotiation or reform. Islam is what it is."[148] Australia's Race Discrimination Commissioner, Tim Soutphommasane has said that Hizb ut-Tahrir's views are, "absurd."[149]

In December 2015 the Grand Mufti of Australia and several high profile imams issued a new year's message supporting a fatwa against Islamic State. In the message they stated that "most Islamic Legal Circles and Fatwa Boards have condemned ISIS", and warned young people to avoid the organisation's propaganda.[150]

Prime Minister Malcolm Turnbull has said, "we should not be so delicate as to say ISIL and its ilk have ‘got nothing to do with Islam’. But equally we should not tag all Muslims or their religion with responsibility for the crimes of a tiny criminal minority". He also said, because ISIL is effectively using social media for its propaganda, and with anti-ISIL forces not reacting quickly enough to contradict these on-line messages, there is a need for more rapid and persuasive factual responses.[151]

Discrimination

According to some scholars, a particular trend of anti-Muslim prejudice has developed in Australia since the late 1980s.[152] Since the 2001 World Trade Center attacks in New York, and the 2005 Bali bombings, Islam and its place in Australian society has been the subject of much public debate.[153]

A report published in 2004 by the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission pointed to many Muslim Australians who felt the Australian media was unfairly critical of, and often vilified their community due to generalisations of terrorism and the emphasis on crime. The use of ethnic or religious labels in news reports about crime was thought to stir up racial tensions.[154]

After the White Australia immigration laws were replaced with multicultural policies the social disadvantage of Muslims was thought to have been alleviated. Some sources, however, note that Muslims now face some disadvantages on account of their religion.[14]:15–16 At times there has been opposition to the construction of new mosques in Australia. A 2014 report from the Islamic Sciences and Research Academy, University of Western Sydney, on mosques in New South Wales found that 44 percent of mosques in the state had "experienced resistance from the local community when the mosque was initially proposed". In around 20 percent of these cases opposition was from a small number of people.[155]

According to Michael Humphrey, a professor of sociology at the University of Sydney, much of Islamic culture and organisation in Australia has been borne of the social marginalisation experiences of Muslim working class migrants. This "immigrant Islam" is often viewed by the host society as a force of "cultural resistance" toward the multicultural and secular nature of the general Australian culture. Muslim practices of praying, fasting and veiling appear as challenging the conformity within public spaces and the values of gender equality in social relationships and individual rights. The immigrant Muslims are often required to "negotiate their Muslimness" in the course of their encounters with Australian society, the governmental and other social institutions and bureaucracies.[156]

A poll of nearly 600 Muslim residents of Sydney released in November 2015 found that the respondents were three to five times more likely to have experienced racism than the general Australian population. However, approximately 97 per cent of the Muslim respondents reported that that had friendly relations with non-Muslims and felt welcome in Australia.[157]

In an Australia-wide survey published in November 2015, which was based on 1,573 interviews, which asked, "Are Muslims that live in Australia doing enough to integrate into the Australian community, or should they be doing more?", only 20% of respondents thought Muslims are currently "doing enough".[126][127]

A poll conducted by the University of South Australia's International Centre for Muslim and non-Muslim Understanding which was released in 2016 found that 10 per cent of Australians have hostile attitudes towards Muslims.[158] The accompanying report concluded that "the great majority of Australians in all states and regions are comfortable to live alongside Australian Muslims".[159]

Women's rights

As part of the broader issue of women's rights and Islam, the perceived gender inequality in Islam has often been the focal point of criticism in Australia through comparisons to the situation of women in Islamic nations. Muslim women can face hurdles both from within the Muslim community and from the wider community.[153][160] Following a successful appeal to the Victorian Civil and Administrative Tribunal by a Muslim lady, who believes it is a sin to be seen without a niqab, the policy of the Monash hospital is now for female doctors to attend to female patients, if requested.[161] Several Melbourne councils have women-only sessions in their swimming pools. Monash Council has provided a curtain to ensure privacy for Muslim women.[162][163]

It has been reported that female circumcision has been carried out in New South Wales, Victoria and Western Australia.[164][165] The act has been a criminal offence since the 1990s. The first criminal trial concerning female circumcision in Australia ended with the conviction of three members of the Dawoodi Bohra Shia Muslim community in November 2015.[166][167] There are reportedly 120,000 migrant women living in Australia who have had their genitals mutilated.[168]

There have been prosecutions under Australian law in regards to Islamic marriages involving underage girls.[169][170][171] It has been reported that a "growing number of Muslim men [have] multiple wives"; the same story cited Islamic Friendship Association of Australia president Keysar Trad as stating that there were "not many more than 50" polygamist Muslim families in Australia.[172]

The AFIC has advocated Australian Muslims being able to marry and divorce under the principles of Sharia law, saying that Australian Muslims should enjoy "legal pluralism".[173][174] There are Sharia law based mediation centres in Sydney and Melbourne.[175] To expedite a religious divorce, Australian Muslim women often agree to sharia law principles which result in an unequal distribution of assets and rights.[176] A Melbourne based, Muslim lawyer has said, "his clients, almost all female, say they have been disadvantaged by Sharia settlements."[175]

At a major Sydney mosque women are required to remain behind tinted glass on the second floor.[177][178]

In March 2016 the New South Wales Civil and Administrative Tribunal determined that separate male and female seating arrangements at public events hosted by Hizb ut-Tahrir contravened section 33 of the NSW Anti-Discrimination Act. The Tribunal ordered that all future publicity materials for public events hosted by Hizb ut-Tahrir must clearly inform attendees that segregated seating arrangements are not compulsory.[179][180][181]

In May 2016 the United Muslims of Australia held a conference in Sydney where genders were separated by a fence.[182]

Employment, education and crime

As of 2007, average wages of Muslims were much lower than those of the national average, with just 5% of Muslims earning over $1000 per week compared to the average of 11%. Unemployment rates amongst Muslims born overseas were higher than Muslims born in Australia.[153]

Muslims are over-represented in jails in New South Wales, at 9% to 10% of the prison population, compared to less than 3% within the NSW population.[183]

Other issues

Promotion of antisemitism

There is antisemitism among Muslims in Australia. The leader of Hizb ut-Tahrir has said that the Jews "are evil creatures",[184] and the principal of Al-Taqwa College told students that ISIL is a scheme created by Israel.[185] An Islamic bookstore in Lakemba was found to be selling a children's book that describes Jews as "much conceited" and intent on world domination.[72]

Sheik Taj el-Din al-Hilali, former Grand Mufti of Australia said, "Jews try to control the world through sex, then sexual perversion, then the promotion of espionage, treason and economic hoarding"[186][187] with Christians and Jews being, "the worst in God's creation".[188] At a Victorian university, a Muslim group held workshops based on the teachings of Islamic scholars who have recommended the death penalty for homosexuals and apostates, promoted terrorism and preached hatred of Jews and Christians.[189]

Promotion of extremism

Material sold at some Sunni Islamic bookshops have raised concerns. For example, the Islamic Information Bookshop in Melbourne was stocking literature "calling for violence against non-Muslims";[190] the Al Risalah Bookshop[191] was said to be "encouraging young Australians to fight in Syria";[192][193] and the Al-Furqan Bookshop[194][195] was said to be polarising members with extreme views.[196]

The Bukhari House Islamic Bookshop[197] in Auburn, New South Wales, which is aligned to the Ahlus Sunnah Wal Jamaah Association has featured heavily in counter-terrorism raids.[198] The gunman responsible for the 2015 Parramatta shooting is said to have spent his final days under the influence of Bukhari House leaders.[199]

In Brisbane, the iQraa Bookstore was said to promote extremism.[200][201] It was reported in 2015 that the al-Furqan and al-Risalah bookshops had both closed, but concern has been raised that this might be the "worst thing that could happen" as they provided a place for people to go to "express their frustrations".[202]

Demography

Trends

Historical population
YearPop.±%
1981 76,792—    
1991 147,487+92.1%
2001 281,600+90.9%
2011 476,291+69.1%

During the 1980s the Australian Muslim population increased from 76,792 or 0.53% of the Australian population in 1981, to 109,523 or 0.70% in 1986. In the 2011 Census, the Muslim population was 479,300 or 2.25%, an increase of 438% on the 1981 number.

The general increase of the Muslim population in this decade was from 147,487 or 0.88% of the Australian population in 1991, to 200,885 or 1.12% in 1996.

In 2005 the overall Muslim population in Australia had grown from 281,600 or 1.50% of the general Australian population in 2001, to 340,400 or 1.71% in 2006. The growth of Muslim population at this time was recorded as 3.88% compared to 1.13% for the general Australian population.

The following is a breakdown of the country of birth of Muslims in Australia from 2001:[203]

There were 281,578 Muslims recorded in this survey; in the 2006 census the population had grown to 340,392.[204] 48% of Australian-born Muslims claimed Lebanese or Turkish ancestry.[203]

The distribution by state of the nation's Islamic followers has New South Wales with 50% of the total number of Muslims, followed by Victoria (33%), Western Australia (7%), Queensland (5%), South Australia (3%), ACT (1%) and both Northern Territory and Tasmania sharing 0.3%.

The majority of people who reported Islam as their religion in the 2006 Census were born overseas: 58% (198,400).[204] Of all persons affiliating with Islam in 2006 almost 9% were born in Lebanon and 7% were born in Turkey.[205]

Areas

At the 2011 census, people who were affiliated with Islam as a percentage of the total population in Australia divided geographically by statistical local area
At the 2011 census, people who were affiliated with Islam as a percentage of the total population in Sydney divided geographically by postal area

Many Muslims living in Melbourne are Bosnian and Turkish. Melbourne's Australian Muslims live primarily in the northern suburbs surrounding Broadmeadows (mostly Turkish) and a few in the outer southern suburbs such as Noble Park and Dandenong (mainly Bosnian).

Very few Muslims live in regional areas with the exceptions of the sizeable Turkish and Albanian community in Shepparton, Victoria and Malays in Katanning, Western Australia. A community of Iraqis have settled in Cobram on the Murray River in Victoria.[206]

Perth also has a Muslim community focussed in and around the suburb of Thornlie, where there is a Mosque. Perth's Australian Islamic School has around 2,000 students on three campuses.

Mirrabooka and Beechboro contain predominantly Bosnian communities. The oldest mosque in Perth is the Perth Mosque on William Street in Northbridge. It has undergone many renovations although the original section still remains. Other mosques in Perth are located in Rivervale, Mirrabooka, Beechboro and Hepburn.

There are also communities of Muslims from Turkey, the Indian subcontinent (Pakistan, India and Bangladesh) and South-East Asia, in Sydney and Melbourne, the Turkish communities around Auburn, New South Wales and Meadow Heights and Roxburgh Park and the South Asian communities around Parramatta. Indonesian Muslims, are more widely distributed in Darwin.

Communities

Muslim population by country of origin

  Australia (36%)
  Lebanon (10%)
  Turkey (8%)
  Afghanistan (3.5%)
  Bosnia-Herzegovina (3.5%)
  Pakistan (3.2%)
  Indonesia (2.9%)
  Iraq (2.8%)
  Bangladesh (2.7%)
  Iran (2.3%)
  Fiji (2%)
  Other (23.1%)

Aboriginal Muslims

According to Australia's 2011 census, 1,140 people identify as Aboriginal Muslims, almost double the number of Aboriginal Muslims recorded in the 2001 census.[207] Many are converts and some are descendants of Afghan cameleers or, as in the Arnhem Land people, have Macassan ancestry as a result of the historical Makassan contact with Australia.[208][209] In north east Arnhem Land, there is some Islamic influence on the songs, paintings, dances, prayers with certains hymns to "Allah" and funeral rituals like facing west during prayers, roughly the direction of Mecca, and ritual prostration reminiscent of the Muslim sujud.[207] As a result of Malay indentured laborers, plenty of families in Northern Australia have names like Doolah, Hassan and Khan.[207] The boxer Anthony Mundine is a member of this community.[210] Many indigenous converts are attracted to Islam because they see a compatibility between Aboriginal and Islamic beliefs,[211] while others see it as a fresh start and an aid against common social ills afflicting indigenous Australians, such as alcohol and drug abuse.[207]

Bangladeshi Muslims

Bangladeshi Muslims are located primarily in Western Sydney with a mosque at Seaton[212] and in the south-east of Melbourne, with a mosque at Huntingdale.[213] The Seaton Mosque has been linked to the Tablighi Jamaat School of Islam[214] and has hosted Hizb ut-Tahrir.[215] For Bangladeshi Muslims attending the Huntingdale Mosque, all Islamic lunar months, such as Ramadan are observed using local moon-sightings, rather than being based on Middle-Eastern, or other, timings.[216][217]

Bosnian Muslims

Main article: Bosnian Australian

Bosnian Muslims have predominantly arrived in Australia after 1992, with most of the community living in the south east of Melbourne and in the south west of Sydney. There are Bosnian run mosques in Deer Park, Noble Park, and Penshurst.[218]

Lebanese Muslims

Main article: Lebanese Australians

Lebanese Muslims form the core of Australia's Muslim Arab population, particularly in Sydney where most Arabs in Australia live. Approximately 3.4% of Sydney's population are Muslim.

Somali Muslims

Main article: Somali Australians

Although the first Somali community in Victoria was established in 1988, most Somalis began to settle in the country in the early 1990s following the civil war in Somalia.[219] Somalis are active in the wider Australian Muslim community, and have also contributed significantly to local business.[220]

Turkish Muslims

Main article: Turkish Australians

Turkish Muslims are a significant segment of the Australian Muslim community. Some statistical reports forecast the Turkish Muslim population in Australia surpassing the Lebanese Muslim population in the 2020s and 2030s. The majority of Turkish Muslims in Sydney are from Auburn, Eastlakes and Prestons. Despite still having a large Turkish population in Auburn and Eastlakes, many Turks moved out of these areas and moved to Prestons to be close to the new and growing Turkish private school, Amity College which is run by people closely affiliated with the Galaxy Foundation (formerly Feza Foundation).

In literature and film

There are a number of notable works in Australian literature that discuss the Muslims during the "Afghan period" (1860-1900).[14]:10

Veiled Ambition is a documentary created by Rebel Films for the SBS independent network following a Lebanese-Australian woman named Frida as she opens a shop selling fashionable clothing for Muslim women on Melbourne's Sydney Road. The documentary follows Frida as she develops her business in Melbourne while juggling a husband and home in Sydney and a pregnancy.[221] Veiled Ambition won the Palace Films Award for Short Film Promoting Human Rights at the 2006 Melbourne International Film Festival.[222]

Notable figures

See also

References

  1. ↑ "2071.0 - Reflecting a Nation: Stories from the 2011 Census, 2012–2013". Retrieved 15 December 2014.
  2. ↑ "Old trend no leap of faith". The Sydney Morning Herald.
  3. ↑ "Australians Lose Their Faith". The Wall Street Journal.
  4. ↑ J. Gordon Melton, Martin Baumann. Religions of the World: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices. p. 247.
  5. 1 2 Burke, Kelly (22 September 2012). "Disunity, not anger, is Muslim dilemma". Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 12 April 2015.
  6. ↑ Baker, Jordan; Marcus, Caroline (23 September 2012). "Inside Sydney's City of Imams". Sunday Telegraph. Retrieved 7 April 2015.
  7. ↑ "The Yolngu". National Museum of Australia. Retrieved 27 March 2015.
  8. ↑ Ganter,R.(2008) Journal of Australian Studies, Volume 32,4, 2008: "Muslim Australians: the deep histories of contact." Retrieved on 6 April 2012
  9. ↑ Janak Rogers (24 June 2014). "When Islam came to Australia". BBC News Magazine. Retrieved 25 June 2014.
  10. ↑ "Dr Ian S McIntosh - Biography". National Museum of Australia. Retrieved 26 March 2015.
  11. 1 2 McIntosh, Ian (June 1996). "Islam and Australia's Aborigines? A Perspective from North-East Arnhem Land". The Journal of Religious History, Vol. 20, No. 1. Retrieved 26 March 2015.
  12. ↑ McIntosh, Ian (1996). "Allah and the Spirit of the Dead - The hidden legacy of pre-colonial Indonesian/Aboriginal contact in north-east Arnhem Land" (PDF). Australian National University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-06-11. Retrieved 26 March 2015.
  13. ↑ Howie-Willis, Ian, ed. (1997). "Aboriginal History Volume 21" (PDF). History Department, Australian National University. Retrieved 26 March 2015.
  14. 1 2 3 4 5 "Muslims In Australia - Nahid Kabir - Google Books". Books.google.com.au. 2013-01-11. Retrieved 2015-03-30.
  15. ↑ "Norfolk Island Census of Population and Housing 2006" (PDF). Government of Norfolk Island. p. 25. Retrieved 30 June 2011.
  16. ↑ "Combating Racism and Prejudice in Schools" (PDF). Victorian Department of Education. p. 13. Retrieved 30 June 2011.
  17. ↑ Shahram Akbarzadeh; Abdullah Saeed (2001). Muslim communities in Australia. UNSW Press. pp. 13–15.
  18. ↑ Jones, Philip G and Kenny, Anna (2007) Australia’s Muslim cameleers : pioneers of the inland, 1860s–1930s Kent Town, S. Aust. : Wakefield Press. ISBN 978-1-86254-778-0
  19. ↑ Arthur Clark (January–February 1988). "Camels Down Under". Saudi Aramco World. Retrieved 19 November 2006.
  20. ↑ Dr Nahid Kabir (7 September 2007). "A History of Muslims in Australia". The (Dhaka) Daily Star, Bangladesh. Retrieved 18 July 2009.
  21. ↑ “Mahomedan Festival in Melbourne”, Auckland Star, 16 August 1884, page 3.
  22. ↑ Murphy, Damien. "Broken Hill an act of war or terrorism won't be commemorated." Sydney Morning Herald. 31 October 2014.
  23. ↑ Stevens, Christine. Tin Mosques and Ghantowns; A History of Afghan Cameldrivers in Australia. Oxford University Press. Melbourne 1989, p. 163 ISBN 0-19-554976-7
  24. ↑ "Cultural Diversity in Australia". Australian Bureau of Statistics. 21 June 2012. Retrieved 30 September 2014.
  25. ↑ "Govt Hopes No Islamic Protests In Melbourne." Nine MSN. Accessed 20 September 2014.
  26. ↑ Simmonds, Kylie (17 December 2014). "Sydney siege: Police respond to anti-Muslim sentiment in wake of Lindt cafe shootout". ABC News. Retrieved 17 December 2014.
  27. ↑ "#illridewithyou: support for Muslim Australians takes off following Sydney siege." ABC News. 15 December 2014.
  28. ↑ "Sydney cafe: Australians say to Muslims 'I'll ride with you.'" BBC. 16 December 2014.
  29. ↑ Kim, Sharnie= (19 May 2015). "Muslim integration: Australian immigration policies need tightening, Islamic Council founding president says". ABC News. Retrieved 20 May 2015.
  30. ↑ "Reflections on a Muslim community under siege". The Australian. 23 May 2015. Retrieved 23 May 2015.
  31. ↑ "Islam in Australia - Demographic Profile of Muslim Youth" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 February 2014. Retrieved 31 March 2015.
  32. ↑ "World Almanac of Islamism - Australia" (PDF). American Foreign Policy Council. p. 9. Retrieved 6 April 2015.
  33. ↑ Rubvin, Barry (2010). "Guide to Islamist Movements, Volume 2". p. 119. Retrieved 6 April 2015.
  34. ↑ "Extremists lure young minds". Sydney Morning Herald. 31 July 2011. Retrieved 4 April 2015.
  35. ↑ http://www.dawateislami.net Dawateislami
  36. ↑ "Muslim Journeys – Arrivals – Lebanese". National Archives of Australia. 2001. Retrieved 16 February 2009.
  37. ↑ Kerbja, Richard (28 Jan 2008). "Call to probe mystery Shia cleric". The Australian. Retrieved 4 April 2015.
  38. 1 2 "Shia Muslims stand against IS at annual Ashura march in Sydney". ABC News (Australia). 4 November 2014. Retrieved 15 February 2015.
  39. ↑ "Thousands take part in Ashura march through Sydney". Sydney Morning Herald. 4 November 2014. Retrieved 15 February 2015.
  40. ↑ Wehby, Fatima (24 October 2015). "Muslims attend Ashura procession in Sydney". PressTV. Retrieved 28 October 2015.
  41. ↑ Cook, Henrietta (27 October 2015). "Department backs school over national anthem furore". The Age. Retrieved 28 October 2015.
  42. ↑ Rintoul, Stuart (26 June 2012). "Bobb (sic) Carr condemns Alawite attacks in Australia". The Australian. Retrieved 15 October 2014.
  43. ↑ "About us". alsadiq.nsw.edu.au. Retrieved 15 October 2014.
  44. ↑ Cooper, Adam (19 March 2012). "Petrol-bomb attack on religious group". The Age. Retrieved 16 April 2015.
  45. ↑ "Cry, my father's country". Sydney Morning Herald. 1 March 2014. Retrieved 4 April 2015.
  46. ↑ Debien, Noel (22 July 2012). "The good life: Druze practical spirituality (Part 1)". ABC News. Retrieved 4 April 2015.
  47. ↑ R. S. McGregor (25 Sep 1992). McGregor, R. S., ed. Devotional Literature in South Asia: Current Research, 1985-1988 (illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 103. ISBN 9780521413114.
  48. ↑ Pratap Kumar (30 Jan 2015). Indian Diaspora: Socio-Cultural and Religious Worlds. BRILL. p. 280. ISBN 9789004288065.
  49. ↑ Tolj, Brianne (12 November 2015). "Mother, nurse and Muslim leader found guilty over the genital mutilation of two girls who were told to imagine they were 'a princess in a garden' during the 'cutting'". Daily Mail. Retrieved 16 November 2015.
  50. ↑ Gardiner, Stephanie (12 November 2015). "Mother, midwife and sheikh guilty in Australia's first genital mutilation trial". Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 16 November 2015.
  51. ↑ "Dawoodi Bohra Jamaat". Sydney Business Directory. Retrieved 16 November 2015.
  52. ↑ Patrick Abboud (28 Sep 2012). "Sufism: The invisible branch of Islam". SBS. Retrieved 27 October 2014.
  53. ↑ "Australian Islamic organisations label al-Ahbash extremist". ABC Radio Australia. 25 November 2005. Retrieved 27 October 2014.
  54. ↑ Ian Munro (26 November 2005). "Community turns on fundamentalists". The Age. Retrieved 27 October 2014.
  55. ↑ O'Brien, Natalie (9 January 2011). "Muslims call for 'radical' radio station to be closed". Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 5 January 2015.
  56. ↑ O'Brien, Natalie; Wood, Alicia (27 February 2011). "The candidate, a 'radical cult' and $6m squandered on the college that never was". Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 5 January 2015.
  57. ↑ "Who are the Ahmadi?". BBC. 28 May 2010. Retrieved 14 January 2015.
  58. ↑ "Ahmadiyya Muslim Association Australia". Ahmadiyya.org.au. Retrieved 14 January 2015.
  59. ↑ "Religions and their followers find a safe haven". The Sydney Morning Herald.
  60. ↑ Thomas, Stacy (3 October 2013). "Marsden Park mosque hosts world Muslim leader". Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 16 April 2015.
  61. ↑ Platt, Keith (22 December 2014). "Mosque leaders condemn fatal siege". Bayside News. Retrieved 5 February 2016.
  62. ↑ van den Broeke, Leigh (5 February 2016). "Mosque imam Inamul Haq Kauser: Speak English, and be loyal to Australia". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 5 February 2016.
  63. ↑ Fahy, Patrick (18 January 2016). "Mosque opens its doors for Australia Day celebrations". Blacktown Sun. Retrieved 21 January 2016.
  64. ↑ "Mosques hooked on foreign cash lifelines". Smh.com.au. 2002-11-25. Retrieved 2015-03-30.
  65. ↑ "Revealed: the Saudis' paymaster in Australia". The Sydney Morning Herald. 10 September 2005. Retrieved 1 January 2015.
  66. ↑ Bendle, Mervyn (21 February 2009). "Secret Saudi funding of Australian institutions". News Weekly. Retrieved 1 January 2015.
  67. ↑ Bendle, Mervyn (29 September 2010). "How to be a useful idiot: Saudi funding in Australia". ABC. Retrieved 1 January 2015.
  68. ↑ "'This is a warning': Members of Sydney’s Shia community fear IS beheading". SBS. 3 November 2013. Retrieved 3 April 2015.
  69. ↑ Olding, Rachel (30 June 2013). "Home front opens in a foreign war". Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 3 April 2014.
  70. ↑ Meldrum-Hanna, Caro (4 June 2013). "Sectarian tensions underlying conflict in Syria erupt in Sydney and Melbourne". ABC News. Retrieved 19 November 2015.
  71. ↑ Jopson, Debra (30 October 2012). "Syria’s Civil War Spills Over in Sydney". The Global Mail. Archived from the original on 9 January 2015. Retrieved 19 November 2015.
  72. 1 2 Auerbach, Taylor (2 April 2015). "Islamic State grooming Aussie teens as young as 14 for terror army online". Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 2 April 2015.
  73. ↑ Zwartz, Barney (11 June 2007). "Hilali out as Mufti, moderate in". The Age. Retrieved 29 January 2015.
  74. ↑ Kilani, Ahmed (19 September 2011). "Australian Imams appoint a new Mufti". muslimvillage.com. MuslimVillage Incorporated. Retrieved 29 January 2015. Imams and Sheikhs from around Australia held a meeting last night in which they appointed Dr Ibrahim Abu Muhammad as the new Grand Mufti of Australia.
  75. ↑ http://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1205&context=lawpapers
  76. ↑ "Fiqh (Jurisprudence) | Table". Darulfatwa.org.au. Retrieved 2015-03-30.
  77. ↑ Archived 3 June 2014 at the Wayback Machine.
  78. ↑ Benson, Simon (26 June 2014). "Government seeks advice over radical Islamic group Hizb ut-Tahrir: Can’t act against them under current laws". Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 5 January 2015.
  79. ↑ Auerbach, Taylor (11 January 2015). "Charlie Hebdo terrorist attacks a ‘cure’, says leader of Hizb ut-Tahrir Australia Ismail Alwahwah". Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 11 January 2015.
  80. ↑ "About Hizb ut-Tahrir". 29 January 2009. Retrieved 13 January 2015.
  81. ↑ Lillebuen, Steve (28 September 2014). "Sheikh defends radical preacher's attendance at conference". The Age. Retrieved 5 January 2015.
  82. ↑ Olding, Rachel, Olding (28 September 2014). "Members of Street Dawah preaching group feature heavily in Sydney's counter-terrorism raids". Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 5 January 2015.
  83. ↑ Henshaw, Carolyn (30 March 2013). "NAB set to join rush for Islamic cash". The Australian. Retrieved 17 February 2015.
  84. ↑ "Master of Islamic Banking and Finance". Latrobe University. Retrieved 17 February 2015.
  85. ↑ "Crescent Wealth". Retrieved 17 February 2015.
  86. ↑ "Wasiyyah". Wasiyyah.com.au. Retrieved 2015-03-30.
  87. ↑ "Zakat Al-Mal Project, Pay Zakat, What is Zakat in Islam? – Human Appeal International". Humanappeal.org.au. Retrieved 2015-03-30.
  88. ↑ "National Zakat Foundation". National Zakat Foundation. Retrieved 17 February 2015.
  89. ↑ Johnson, Chris (28 December 2014). "Why halal certification is in turmoil". Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 8 January 2015.
  90. 1 2 Medhora, Shalailah (1 December 2015). "Overhaul 'lacklustre' halal certification to root out exploitation, report says". The Guardian. Retrieved 1 December 2015.
  91. ↑ Ockenden, Will (24 September 2015). "No direct link between halal certification and Islamic terrorism, Senate inquiry told". ABC. Retrieved 2 December 2015.
  92. ↑ "No Halal link to terror: Senate committee". Sky News. 1 December 2015. Retrieved 2 December 2015.
  93. ↑ "Australian Senate Committee Inquiry Recommendations". APH. 1 December 2015. Retrieved 2 December 2015.
  94. ↑ Rane, Halim; Ewart, Jacqui; Abdalla, Mohamad (2010). Islam and the Australian news media. Volume 4 of the Islamic Studies Series. Carlton, Victoria: Academic Monographs. ISBN 9780522860047.
  95. ↑ Ho, Christina (July–August 2007). "Muslim women's new defenders: Women's rights, nationalism and Islamophobia in contemporary Australia". Women's Studies International Forum (Elsevier) 30 (4): 290–298. doi:10.1016/j.wsif.2007.05.002.
  96. ↑ Kabir, Nahid Afrose. Muslims in Australia: immigration, race relations and cultural history. Routledge, 2004.
  97. ↑ Shandon Harris-Hogan. "The Australian Neojihadist network: Origins, evolution and structure." Dynamics of Asymmetric Conflict, Volume 5, Issue 1. Global Terrorism Research Centre. Monash University. Victoria: Australia. (2012): pp. 18- 30.
  98. ↑ Koschade, Stuart Andrew. "The internal dynamics of terrorist cells: a social network analysis of terrorist cells in an Australian context." (2007).
  99. ↑ NATALIE O'BRIEN. "Mother of militant Islam's dark past." THE AUSTRALIAN. JULY 21, 2007.
  100. ↑ David Martin Jones, Sacred Violence: Political Religion in a Secular Age, Palgrave Macmillan, 2014.
  101. ↑ Zachary Abuza, Political Islam and Violence in Indonesia, Routledge, 2006.
  102. ↑ Andrew Zammit, "THE HOLSWORTHY BARRACKS PLOT: A CASE STUDY OF AN AL-SHABAB SUPPORT NETWORK IN AUSTRALIA." June 21, 2012.
  103. ↑ Ian Munro, “Terror on Tap,” Sydney Morning Herald, December 24, 2010.
  104. ↑ Raffaello Pantucci, “Operation Neath: Is Somalia’s al-Shabaab Movement Active in Australia?” Terrorism Monitor 9:3 (2011).
  105. ↑ Leah Farrall, “What the al Shabab-al Qaeda Merger Means for Australia,” The Conversation, March 5, 2012.
  106. ↑ Bendle, Mervyn F. "Secret Saudi funding of radical Islamic groups in Australia." National Observer 72 (2007): 7.
  107. ↑ "Australia's Howard Says Fanatical Islam Behind Terror". Bloomberg (2 ed.). 9 November 2005.
  108. ↑ RACHEL OLDING, "Terrifying Legacy Emerges From Success of Operation Pendennis." Sydney Morning Herald. 24 August 2014.
  109. ↑ "Australian National Security - Islamic State". Australian Government. Retrieved 26 July 2014.
  110. ↑ Lloyd, Peter (21 June 2014). "Australian militants Abu Yahya ash Shami and Abu Nour al-Iraqi identified in ISIS recruitment video". ABC News. Retrieved 26 July 2014.
  111. ↑ Crawford, Carly (10 May 2015). "Islamic State sets sights on exanding to Canberra". Herald Sun. Retrieved 11 May 2015.
  112. 1 2 "The rapid evolution of the ISIS death cult". Heraldsun.com.au. Retrieved 2015-03-30.
  113. ↑ Bachelard, Michael; Wroe, David (9 May 2015). "Keyboard warrior: Anzac terror plot accused Sevdet Besim allegedly guided online". Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 13 May 2015.
  114. ↑ Maley, Paul (10 May 2015). "One missing piece in the Neil Prakash Islamic State puzzle". The Australian. Retrieved 13 May 2015.
  115. ↑ Dowling, James (11 May 2015). "Teenager accused of terrorist bomb plot spread radical views of British hate preacher". Herald Sun. Retrieved 12 May 2015.
  116. ↑ "Australia Warns of Islamic Militant Migration: Australia Increases Counterterrorism Strategies to Combat Threat." The Wall Street Journal. June 24, 2014.
  117. ↑ Bourke, Latika (19 June 2014). "Number of Australians fighting with militants in Iraq and Syria 'extraordinary', Julie Bishop says". ABC News. Archived from the original on 19 January 2016. Retrieved 26 July 2014.
  118. ↑ Chambers, Geoff (16 April 2015). "Revealed: Full list of Aussie jihadis fighting with ISIS in Syria and Iraq". Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 27 April 2015.
  119. ↑ Piotrowski, Daniel (18 April 2015). "From a bricklayer turned bombmaker to a schoolboy on a suicide mission: The faces of the TWENTY Australians killed fighting overseas for terrorist groups... and their very average backgrounds". Daily Mail. Retrieved 20 April 2015.
  120. ↑ Doorley, Neil; Snowdon, Tom (20 April 2015). "Queensland terror suspects removed from flights". Herald Sun. Retrieved 20 April 2015.
  121. ↑ "Australian counter-terror police 'stopping 400 per day' - BBC News". Bbc.com. Retrieved 2015-03-30.
  122. ↑ Dowling, James (20 May 2015). "Australian laws stopping Melbourne woman leaving IS, father says". Herald Sun. Retrieved 20 May 2015.
  123. ↑ Owens, Jarad (19 May 2015). "Returning Islamic State foreign fighters face jail, Abbott says". The Australian. Retrieved 20 May 2015.
  124. ↑ Maley, Paul (20 May 2015). "Cold comfort and jail for returning jihadists". The Australian. Retrieved 20 May 2015.
  125. ↑ Wroe, David (16 December 2015). "Flow of Australian Islamic State fighters has hit 'plateau', says ASIO boss". The Canberra Times. Retrieved 16 December 2015.
  126. 1 2 Hudson Phillip (23 November 2015). "Australians fear terror will hit home: Newspoll". The Australian. Retrieved 2 December 2015.
  127. 1 2 "NewsPoll" (PDF). The Australian. 23 November 2015. Retrieved 2 December 2015.
  128. ↑ "BBC NEWS - Asia-Pacific - Sydney's Muslims fear revenge attacks". Retrieved 15 December 2014.
  129. ↑ Benson, Simon; Mullany, Ashley (19 July 2014). "Sydney teen kills five in suicide bombing on crowded Iraqi market". Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 26 July 2014.
  130. ↑ Jordan, Bev (19 August 2014). "Young Muslims ‘sick to the stomach’ over homegrown jihadists". Hills Shire Times. Retrieved 16 April 2015.
  131. ↑ "Islamic State: Perth university student Muhammed Sheglabo joins fighters in Middle East". Au.news.yahoo.com. Retrieved 2015-03-30.
  132. ↑ Mohammed, Glenn (29 August 2014). "My Muslim religion has problems that need fixing". The Age. Retrieved 4 January 2014.
  133. ↑ Ahmed, Tanveer (14 August 2014). "Muslim communities must face up to bad apples". The Australian. Retrieved 14 August 2014.
  134. ↑ Callick, Rowan (29 September 2014). "Ahmadiyya Muslims back Australian drive against jihadist radicalisation". The Australian. Retrieved 4 December 2015.
  135. ↑ Jennings, Peter (10 January 2015). "Islamist terrorists in the West betray a pattern of behaviour". The Australian. Retrieved 10 January 2015.
  136. ↑ Kenny, Mark; Wroe, David (12 May 2015). "Federal budget 2015: Abbott government commits $450m more to fight local jihadis". Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 12 May 2015.
  137. ↑ Virtue, Rob (17 November 2015). "Muslim cleric blasted for claiming racism from West could have prompted Paris attacks". Express. Retrieved 3 December 2015.
  138. ↑ Benns, Matthew (19 November 2015). "Muslim leaders question role of non-English speaking Grand Mufti’s advisers and translators". Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 3 December 2015.
  139. ↑ Kenny, Mark (1 December 2015). "Grand Mufti controversy: The truth some say should not be spoken". Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 3 December 2015.
  140. ↑ Lewis, Rosie (30 November 2015). "Terror highlights ‘problem in Islam’, says Josh Frydenberg". The Australian. Retrieved 3 December 2015.
  141. ↑ Maley, Paul (3 December 2015). "Out with the old guard: call for ‘revolution’ in Muslim community". The Australian. Retrieved 3 December 2015.
  142. ↑ Chang, Charis (25 November 2015). "Is there a problem with Islam?". News Ltd. Retrieved 3 December 2015.
  143. ↑ Rao, Shoba (29 October 2015). "An atheist and Muslim call on all Muslims to help reform Islam so it is more modern, not used for evil". News Ltd. Retrieved 3 December 2015.
  144. ↑ Whinnett, Ellen (30 November 2015). "Islam must change: War hero MP Andrew Hastie leads radical push". Herald Sun. Retrieved 3 December 2015.
  145. ↑ Peter Costello (24 November 2015). "Extremism needs to be wiped out of Islam". Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 3 December 2015.
  146. ↑ Benson, Simon (9 December 2015). "Tony Abbott says Islam must change, and we shouldn’t apologise for our Western values". Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 9 December 2015.
  147. ↑ Nicholas McCallum (9 December 2015). "Abbott calls for Islamic 'religious revolution', the destruction of ISIS". Seven News. Retrieved 9 December 2015.
  148. ↑ Howden, Saffron (2 November 2015). "Islam is not up for negotiation or reform. Islam is what it is.". Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 3 December 2015.
  149. ↑ Howden, Saffron (3 November 2015). "Race Discrimination Commissioner Tim Soutphommasane labels Hizb ut-Tahrir views 'absurd'". Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 3 December 2015.
  150. ↑ O'Brien, Natalie (3 January 2015). "Muslim leaders including the Grand Mufti of Australia back fatwa against Islamic State". The Canberra Times. Retrieved 3 January 2016.
  151. ↑ Taylor, Lenore (19 January 2016). "Iraq needs to mock Isis propaganda more effectively, says Malcolm Turnbull". The Guardian. Retrieved 21 January 2016.
  152. ↑ Poynting, Scott, and Victoria Mason. "The resistible rise of Islamophobia Anti-Muslim racism in the UK and Australia before 11 September 2001." Journal of Sociology 43, no. 1 (2007): 61-86.
  153. 1 2 3 "Muslim Australians – E-Brief". http://www.aph.gov.au/library Australian Parliament Library]. 6 March 2007. Archived from the original on 2012-01-27. External link in |publisher= (help)
  154. ↑ "National consultations on eliminating prejudice against Arab and Muslim Australians". HREOC. 16 June 2004. Retrieved 9 July 2008.
  155. ↑ Underabi, Husnia. "Mosques of Sydney and New South Wales" (PDF). Charles Sturt University; ISRA Australia; University of Western Sydney. p. 46.
  156. ↑ Humphrey, Michael (2001). "An Australian Islam? Religion in the Multicultural City". In Akbarzadeh, Shahram; Saeed, Abdullah. Muslim Communities in Australia. UNSW Press. pp. 35, 40, 41, 42, 44, 48, 49,. ISBN 978-0-86840-580-3.
  157. ↑ Safi, Michael (30 November 2015). "Sydney Muslims feel at home despite very high racism exposure, survey finds". The Guardian. Retrieved 30 November 2015.
  158. ↑ Brooth, Meredith (20 January 2016). "One in 10 Australians ’highly Islamophobic’ and have a fear of Muslims". The Australian. Retrieved 24 January 2016.
  159. ↑ Hassan, Riaz; Martin, Bill (2015). "Islamophobia, social distance and fear of terrorism in Australia : A Preliminary Report" (PDF). International Centre for Muslim and non-Muslim Understanding. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-9874076-2-7. Retrieved 24 January 2016.
  160. ↑ Archived 31 October 2006 at the Wayback Machine.
  161. ↑ "Melbourne hospital agrees to female-only doctor requests after Muslim patient complains". Nine News. 6 May 2015. Retrieved 13 May 2015.
  162. ↑ Masanauskas, John (11 February 2011). "Hefty bill for Muslim women's privacy at public swimming pool". Herald Sun. Retrieved 23 May 2015.
  163. ↑ Masanauskas, John (20 March 2013). "Backlash against Muslim enclaves". Herald Sun. Retrieved 23 May 2015.
  164. ↑ "7.30". ABC.net.au. 2012-10-29. Retrieved 2015-03-30.
  165. ↑ Paul Bibby (2012-09-13). "Sydney sheikh in court over 'female genital mutilation'". Smh.com.au. Retrieved 2015-03-30.
  166. ↑ Gardiner, Stephanie (12 November 2015). "Mother, midwife and sheikh guilty in Australia's first genital mutilation trial". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 3 December 2015.
  167. ↑ "Australia convicts two over female genital mutilation". BBC News. 12 November 2015. Retrieved 3 December 2015.
  168. ↑ "7.30". ABC. Retrieved 2015-03-30.
  169. ↑ "Shame of our child brides : Court hears how woman was raped and beaten as its revealed hundreds are forced into arranged and unregistered marriages across NSW". Dailytelegraph.com.au. Retrieved 2015-03-30.
  170. ↑ Rachel Olding (2015-02-25). "Child bride: 19-year-old man charged over 'wedding' to 15-year-old". Smh.com.au. Retrieved 2015-03-30.
  171. ↑ "A 12-year-old bride was found to be pregnant after the man she married was charged with multiple sex offences". Dailytelegraph.com.au. Retrieved 2015-03-30.
  172. ↑ Growing number of Muslim men and multiple wives exploiting loophoole for taxpayer handouts
  173. ↑ Jacquelyn Hole (17 May 2011). "Muslim group wants sharia law in Australia". ABC. Retrieved 25 February 2015.
  174. ↑ Patricia Karvelas (17 May 2011). "Muslims to push for sharia". The Australian. Retrieved 25 February 2015.
  175. 1 2 Seymour, Brian (26 April 2016). "Law of the Land? Is Sharia Law operating in our suburbs?". Yahoo7 News. Retrieved 4 May 2016.
  176. ↑ Magnay, Jacquelin (23 December 2015). "Women living in the shadow of Sharia law". The Australian. Retrieved 24 December 2015.
  177. ↑ Howden, Saffron (25 October 2015). ""Muslims really aren't this 'other', nefarious group"". Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 4 May 2016.
  178. ↑ Devine, Miranda (31 May 2013). "Miranda Devine spends a day at Lakemba Mosque". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 4 May 2016.
  179. ↑ Huffadine, Leith (5 March 2016). "Journalist wins gender discrimination case against Islamic group Hizb ut-Tahrir after they forced her to sit in a segregated women's area at one of their lectures". Daily Mail. Retrieved 4 May 2016.
  180. ↑ Visentin, Lisa (5 March 2016). "Islamic group ordered to stop segregating men and women". Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 4 May 2016.
  181. ↑ Seymour, Brian (4 March 2016). "Islamist fundamentalist group Hizb ut-Tahrir found guilty of gender discrimination". Yahoo 7 News. Retrieved 4 May 2016.
  182. ↑ Huffadine, Leith (2 May 2016). "That's awkward: Grand Mufti falls asleep in front row of the United Muslims of Australia conference that promised 'inspirational speakers' - where men and women were separated by a steel FENCE". Daily Mail Australia. Retrieved 4 May 2016.
  183. ↑ http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/news/nsw/inmates-banned-from-speaking-arabic-at-supermax-jail-in-goulburn/story-fnpn118l-1227252909937
  184. ↑ Ari Gross, Judith (13 March 2015). "Australian Muslim leader calls Jews ‘evil creatures’". The Times of Israel. Retrieved 5 April 2015.
  185. ↑ "Islamic State is a plot by Western countries, Victoria's Al-Taqwa College principal tells students". The Age. Retrieved 5 April 2015.
  186. ↑ "Muddle headed Mufti". The Australian. 27 October 2006. Retrieved 17 October 2015.
  187. ↑ Jones, Jeremy. "Confronting Reality: Anti-Semitism in Australia Today". Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs. Retrieved 17 October 2015.
  188. ↑ "Excerpts of al-Hilali's speech". BBC News (Asia-Pacific: BBC). 27 October 2006. Retrieved 17 October 2015.
  189. ↑ Baxendale, Rachel (4 October 2015). "Extremist Muslim group to hold workshops at Deakin University". The Australian. Retrieved 17 October 2015.
  190. ↑ "Row over Melbourne 'holy war' book sales - War on Terror - Features - In Depth". Theage.com.au. Retrieved 2015-03-30.
  191. ↑ Maley, Paul (27 February 2015). "Meet the point man for radical Islam". The Australian. Retrieved 30 March 2015. (subscription required)
  192. ↑ "Sheikhs in Sydney's Al Risalah book store encouraging young Muslims to get involved in Syria's conflict - ABC News (Australian Broadcasting Corporation)". Abc.net.au. Retrieved 2015-03-30.
  193. ↑ Chambers, Geoff (15 October 2014). "Aussie sheik Abu Sulayman is hunted by both IS and US forces". Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 11 April 2015.
  194. ↑ Welch, Dylan; Chadwick, Vince (12 September 2012). "What is the Al-Furqan centre?". Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 18 April 2015.
  195. ↑ Dowling, James (16 May 2015). "Revealed: The split that created Al-Furqan". Herald Sun. Retrieved 21 May 2015.
  196. ↑ "Radical Islamic group : Inside the world of radical group Al-Furqan". Heraldsun.com.au. Retrieved 2015-03-30.
  197. ↑ "Extremists lure young minds". Sydney Morning Herald. 31 July 2011. Retrieved 16 October 2015.
  198. ↑ Olding, Rachel (26 September 2014). "Members of Street Dawah preaching group feature heavily in Sydney's counter-terrorism raids". Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 16 October 2015.
  199. ↑ Colvin, Mark (9 October 2015). "Bukhari House linked to Parramatta killer". ABC News. Retrieved 16 October 2015.
  200. ↑ Doorley, Neil (6 September 2012). "Islamic bookshop run by brother of suicide bomber ‘promotes extremism’". Courier Mail. Retrieved 7 April 2015.
  201. ↑ "Islamic centre raided: Police search Logan centre linked to Syria conflict, two men arrested - ABC News (Australian Broadcasting Corporation)". Abc.net.au. 2014-09-10. Retrieved 2015-03-30.
  202. ↑ Bachelard, Michael; Bucci, Nino (26 April 2015). "How do you solve a problem like radical Islam?". Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 27 April 2015.
  203. 1 2 "HREOC Website: Isma - Listen: National consultations on eliminating prejudice against Arab and Muslim Australias". Retrieved 15 December 2014.
  204. 1 2 "3416.0 – Perspectives on Migrants, 2007: Birthplace and Religion". Australian Bureau of Statistics. 25 February 2008. Retrieved 15 July 2008.
  205. ↑ "Cultural diversity". 1301.0 – Year Book Australia, 2008. Australian Bureau of Statistics. 7 February 2008. Retrieved 15 July 2008.
  206. ↑ "Social integration of Muslim Settlers in Cobram" (PDF). Centre for Muslim Minorities and Islam Policy Studies – Monash University. 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 September 2007. Retrieved 30 October 2007.
  207. 1 2 3 4 Janak Rogers (24 June 2014). "When Islam came to Australia". BBC News Magazine. Retrieved 25 June 2014.
  208. ↑ Phil Mercer (31 March 2003). "Aborigines turn to Islam". BBC. Retrieved 19 November 2006.
  209. ↑ http://islamicsydney.com/story.php?id=826/
  210. ↑ Kathy Marks, The Independent Militant Aborigines embrace Islam to seek empowerment. 28 February 2003. Retrieved 1 February 2007.
  211. ↑ Janak Rogers (24 June 2014). "When Islam came to Australia". BBC News Magazine. Retrieved 25 June 2014. This sense of the compatibility of Aboriginal and Islamic beliefs is not uncommon, says Peta Stephenson, a sociologist at Victoria University. Shared practices include male circumcision, arranged or promised marriages and polygamy, and similar cultural attitudes like respect for land and resources, and respecting one's elders. "Many Aboriginal people I spoke with explained these cultural synergies often by quoting the well-known phrase from the Koran that 124,000 prophets had been sent to the Earth," says Stephenson. "They argued that some of these prophets must have visited Aboriginal communities and shared their knowledge."
  212. ↑ "Bangladesh Islamic Centre of NSW". BIC NSW. 2013. Retrieved 27 April 2015.
  213. ↑ "Huntingdale Masjid". Huntingdale Masjid. 2012. Retrieved 27 April 2015.
  214. ↑ O'Brien, Natelie; Trad, Sanna (7 January 2008). "Terror links in battle for mosque". The Australian. Retrieved 27 April 2015.
  215. ↑ McClellan, Ben; Chambers, Geoff (11 October 2014). "Radical Muslim cleric Ismail al-Wahwah tells supporters a new world order is coming". Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 27 April 2015.
  216. ↑ "Majlis ul Ulamaa of Australia" (PDF). 2012. Retrieved 27 April 2015.
  217. ↑ Irfan Yusuf (8 January 2014). "Another round of Ramadan lunar-cy". Eureka Street. Retrieved 27 April 2015.
  218. ↑ Haveric, David (February 2009). "History of the Bosnian Muslim Community in Australia: Settlement Experience in Victoria" (PDF). Institute for Community, Ethnicity and Policy Alternatives, Victoria University. Retrieved 12 May 2015.
  219. ↑ "Origins: History of immigration from Somalia - Immigration Museum, Melbourne Australia". Retrieved 15 December 2014.
  220. ↑ Archived 25 April 2013 at the Wayback Machine.
  221. ↑ "Veiled Ambition". Ronin Films. Retrieved 2007-08-28.
  222. ↑ Wilson, Jake (14 August 2006). "Bridging the personal-political gap". The Age (Melbourne). Retrieved 23 May 2010.
  223. ↑ "The World Factbook". Cia.gov. Retrieved 2015-03-30.
  224. ↑ "Australia". State.gov. Retrieved 2015-03-30.

Further reading

External links

This article is issued from Wikipedia - version of the Thursday, May 05, 2016. The text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share Alike but additional terms may apply for the media files.