BASE jumping

BASE jump at Majlis Al Jinn, Oman, 2013

BASE jumping, also sometimes written as B.A.S.E. jumping, is parachuting or wingsuit flying from a fixed structure or cliff. "BASE" is an acronym that stands for four categories of fixed objects from which one can jump: building, antenna, span, and Earth (cliff).^[1][2] Due to the lower altitudes of the jumps, BASE jumping is significantly more dangerous than skydiving from a plane. In the U.S., BASE jumping is currently regarded by many as a fringe extreme sport or stunt.^[3] In some jurisdictions or locations, BASE jumping is prohibited or illegal; in some places, however, it is permitted, like Perrine Bridge, in Twin Falls. BASE jumping became known to the wider public by depictions of BASE jumping in a number of action movies.

History

The acronym "B.A.S.E." (now more commonly "BASE") was coined by filmmaker Carl Boenish, his wife Jean Boenish, Phil Smith, and Phil Mayfield.^[4] Carl Boenish was the catalyst behind modern BASE jumping, and in 1978, he filmed the first BASE jumps to be made using ram-air parachutes and the freefall tracking technique (from El Capitan, in Yosemite National Park).^[5] While BASE jumps had been made prior to that time, the El Capitan activity was the effective birth of what is now called BASE jumping.

BASE numbers are awarded to those who have made at least one jump from each of the four categories (buildings, antennas, spans and earth). When Phil Smith and Phil Mayfield jumped together from a Houston skyscraper on 18 January 1981, they became the first to attain the exclusive BASE numbers (BASE #1 and #2, respectively), having already jumped from an antenna, spans, and earthen objects. Jean and Carl Boenish qualified for BASE numbers 3 and 4 soon after. A separate "award" was soon enacted for Night BASE jumping when Mayfield completed each category at night, becoming Night BASE #1, with Smith qualifying a few weeks later.

Faust Vrancic is widely believed to have performed a parachute jumping experiment for real^[6] and, therefore, to be the first man to build and test a parachute: according to the story passed on, Veranzio, in 1617, then over sixty-five years old, implemented his design and tested the parachute by jumping from St Mark's Campanile in Venice.^[7] This event was documented some 30 years later in a book Mathematical Magick or, the Wonders that may be Performed by Mechanical Geometry (London, 1648) written by John Wilkins, the secretary of the Royal Society in London.

However, these and other sporadic incidents were one-time experiments, not the systematic pursuit of a new form of parachuting. After 1978, the filmed jumps from El Capitan were repeated, not as a publicity exercise or as a movie stunt, but as a true recreational activity. It was this that popularized BASE jumping more widely among parachutists. Carl Boenish continued to publish films and informational magazines on BASE jumping until his death in 1984 after a BASE-jump off of the Troll Wall. By this time, the concept had spread among skydivers worldwide, with hundreds of participants making fixed-object jumps.

During the early eighties, nearly all BASE jumps were made using standard skydiving equipment, including two parachutes (main and reserve), and deployment components. Later on, specialized equipment and techniques were developed specifically for the unique needs of BASE jumping.

Jumpers from a cliff

Upon completing a jump from all of the four object categories, a jumper may choose to apply for a "BASE number", awarded sequentially.^[8] The 1000th application for a BASE number was filed in March 2005 and BASE #1000 was awarded to Matt "Harley" Moilanen of Grand Rapids, Michigan. As of December 2014, over 1,850 BASE numbers have been issued.^[9]

BASE jumping is often featured in action movies. The 2002 Vin Diesel film xXx includes a scene where Diesel's character catapults himself off the Foresthill Bridge in an open-topped car, landing safely as the car crashes on the ground. The movie Lara Croft Tomb Raider: The Cradle of Life includes a scene in which the main characters jump with wing suits from the IFC Tower in Hong Kong and fly over the Bank of China, finally opening their parachutes to land on a moving freighter. The stunt was done live, with no special effects, by base jumpers Martin Rosén and Per Eriksson, members of the Swedish "Team Bautasten". The scene was filmed by air-to-air camera man Mikael Nordqvist, from the same team. Since the 1976 Mount Asgard jump featured in the pre-credits sequence to The Spy Who Loved Me, James Bond movies have featured several BASE jumps, including one from the Eiffel Tower in 1985's A View to a Kill, the Rock of Gibraltar in 1987's The Living Daylights, and in Die Another Day, 2002, Pierce Brosnan as James Bond jumps from a melting iceberg. Of the James Bond jumps only the Mt Asgard and Eiffel Tower jumps were filmed live; the rest were special effects. And in 2005's "Batman Begins", Bruce Wayne uses BASE jumping as inspiration for his memory cloth cape. A series of BASE jumps are featured in the video for a remix of M83's "Lower Your Eyelids to Die With the Sun".^[10]

Guinness World Records first listed a BASE jumping record with Carl Boenish's 1984 leap from Trollveggen (Troll Wall) in Norway. It was described as the highest BASE jump.^[11] (The jump was made two days before Boenish's death at the same site.) This record category is still in the Guinness book and is currently held by Australians Glenn Singleman and Heather Swan with a jump from Meru Peak in northern India at a starting elevation of 6,604 metres (21,667 ft).^[12] On July 8, 2006 Captain Daniel G. Schilling set the Guinness World Record for the most BASE jumps in a twenty-four-hour period. Schilling jumped off the Perrine Bridge in Twin Falls, Idaho a record 201 times.

BASE competitions have been held since the early 1980s, with accurate landings or free fall aerobatics used as the judging criteria. Recent years have seen a formal competition held at the 452 metres (1,483 ft) high Petronas Towers in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, judged on landing accuracy.

In 2010 North west Norway celebrated a world record with 53 Base jumpers jumping from a cliff.

Notable jumps

• In 1912, Franz Reichelt, tailor, jumped from the first deck of the Eiffel Tower testing his invention, the coat parachute. He died by hitting the ground. It was his first ever attempt with the parachute and both the authorities and the spectators believed he intended to test it using a dummy.^[13]
• In 1913, Štefan Banič jumped from a 12 m building in order to demonstrate his new parachute to the U. S. Patent Office and military. Subsequently this design became standard equipment for U.S. pilots during the World War I.
• In 1913, a Russian student Vladimir Ossovski (Владимир Оссовский), from the Saint-Petersburg Conservatory, jumped from the 53-meter high bridge over the river Seine in Rouen (France), using the parachute RK-1, invented a year before that by Gleb Kotelnikov (1872–1944). Ossovski planned to jump from the Eiffel Tower too, but the Parisian authorities did not allow it.^[14]
• In 1965, Erich Felbermayr from Wels jumped from the Kleine Zinne / Cima piccola di Lavaredo in the Dolomites.^[15]
• In 1966, Michael Pelkey and Brian Schubert jumped from the cliff "El Capitan" in Yosemite Valley.^[16]
• On January 31, 1972, Rick Sylvester skied off Yosemite Valley's El Capitan cliff, making the first skiBASE jump (he termed it a "ski/parachute jump" since the acronym BASE had yet to be coined), falling approximately halfway down, about 1500', before deploying his Thunderbow chute. He did this twice more, approximately two weeks later and a year later.
• On 9 November 1975, the first person to parachute off the CN Tower in Toronto, Canada, was Bill Eustace, a member of the tower's construction crew. He was fired.^[17]
• In 1975, Owen J. Quinn, a jobless man, parachuted from the south tower of the World Trade Center to publicize the plight of the unemployed.^[18]
• In 1976 Rick Sylvester skied off Canada's Mount Asgard for the ski chase sequence of the James Bond movie The Spy Who Loved Me, giving the wider world its first look at BASE jumping.^[19]
• On February 22, 1982, Wayne Allwood, an Australian skydiving accuracy champion, parachuted from a helicopter over the Sydney CBD and landed on the small top area of Sydney's Centrepoint Tower, approximately 300 metres (980 ft) above the ground. Upon landing, Allwood discarded and secured his parachute, then used a full-sized reserve parachute to BASE jump into Hyde Park below.^[20] Video footage is also included in the Australian Base Associations' 2001 video compilation, Fistful of F-111.
• In 1986, Welshman Eric Jones became the first person to BASE jump from the Eiger.
• In 1987 Steve Dines (Australian) BASE 157 Made the first jump from the top of the Sydney Harbour Bridge.
• In 1990 Russell Powell (British) BASE 230 illegally jumped from the Whispering Gallery inside St Paul's Cathedral London. It was the lowest indoor BASE Jump in the world at 31.1 m.^[21]
• In 1990 Australian Mark Scott BASE# 165 / OZ BASE # 13 / SA BASE #1 made the first BASE Jump off London's One Canada Square tower, four days before the topping out ceremony.^[21]
• On August 26, 1992 Nic Feteris and Glenn Singleman (two Australians) made a BASE jump from an altitude of 20,600 feet (6286 meters) jump off Great Trango Towers Pakistan. It was the world's highest BASE jump off the earth at the time.
• In 1996, one jumper was injured and three landed safely in the only authorized BASE jump from Seattle's Space Needle.^[22]
• In 2000, Hannes Arch and Ueli Gegenschatz were the first to dare a BASE jump from the imposing 1800-metre high north face of the Eiger.
• In 2005, Karina Hollekim became the first woman to perform a ski-BASE.
• In April 2008, Hervé Le Gallou and David McDonnell infiltrated Burj Khalifa, and jumped off a balcony on the 155th floor. They evaded arrest following their successful jump. However, on a second attempt two days later, Le Gallou was caught and subsequently detained in Dubai for three months.^[23][24][25]
• In 2009, three women—29-year-old Australian Livia Dickie, 28-year-old Venezuelan Ana Isabel Dao, and 32-year-old Norwegian Anniken Binz^[26]—base jumped from Angel Falls, the highest waterfall in the world. Ana Isabel Dao was the first Venezuelan woman to jump off Angel Falls.^[27]
• On 8 January 2010, Nasr Al Niyadi and Omar Al Hegelan broke the then current world record for the highest building BASE jump after they leapt from a crane suspended platform attached to the Burj Khalifa's 160th floor at 672 metres (2,205 ft).^[28]
• On 5 May 2013, Russian Valery Rozov, 48, jumped off Changtse’s north face from a height of 7,220 metres (23,690 ft). Using a specially-developed wing suit, he flew to the Rongbuk glacier breaking the world record for highest base jump.^[29]
• In September 2013, 3 men jumped off the then-under-construction One World Trade Center in New York City. Footage of their jump was recorded using headcams and can be seen on YouTube.^[30] In March 2014 the 3 jumpers and one accomplice on the ground were arrested after turning themselves in.^[31][32]
• On April 21, 2014, Fred Fugen and Vince Reffet (both from France) broke the Guinness World Record for Highest BASE Jump From A Building with a jump of 828 m (2,716 ft 6 in). They performed the jump off the Burj Khalifa tower in Dubai, UAE.^[33][34]
• On May 27, 2014, Whisper became the world's first Wingsuit BASE jumping dog.^[35]
• On August 21, 2014, Ramón Rojas of Chile broke the record for highest Earth-based wingsuit ski jump, 4,100 metres (13,500 ft) off of Cerro El Plomo.^[36]

Comparison with skydiving

BASE jumping from an antenna tower

BASE Jumping from Sapphire Tower, Istanbul.

BASE jumping grew out of skydiving. BASE jumps are generally made from much lower altitudes than skydives, and a BASE jump takes place close to the object serving as the jump platform. Because BASE jumps generally entail slower airspeeds than typical skydives (due to the limited altitude), a BASE jumper does not always reach terminal velocity. Because higher airspeeds enable jumpers more aerodynamic control of their bodies, as well as more positive and quick parachute openings, the longer the delay, the better. BASE jumping is significantly more dangerous than similar sports such as skydiving from aircraft.^[3]

Skydivers use the air flow to stabilize their position, allowing the parachute to deploy cleanly. BASE jumpers, falling at lower speeds, have less aerodynamic control, and may tumble. The attitude of the body at the moment of jumping determines the stability of flight in the first few seconds, before sufficient airspeed has built up to enable aerodynamic stability. On low BASE jumps, parachute deployment takes place during this early phase of flight, so if a poor "launch" leads into a tumble, the jumper may not be able to correct this before the opening. If the parachute is deployed while the jumper is tumbling, there is a high risk of entanglement or malfunction. The jumper may also not be facing the right direction. Such an off-heading opening is not as problematic in skydiving, but an off-heading opening that results in object strike has caused many serious injuries and deaths in BASE jumping.

At an altitude of 600 metres (2,000 ft), having been in free-fall for at least 300 metres (980 ft), a skydiver is falling at approximately 55 metres per second (120 mph), and is approximately 10.9 seconds from the ground. Most BASE jumps are made from less than 600 metres (2,000 ft). For example, a BASE jump from a 150 metres (490 ft) object is about 5.6 seconds from the ground if the jumper remains in free fall. On a BASE jump, the parachute must open at about half the airspeed of a similar skydive, and more quickly (in a shorter distance fallen). Standard skydiving parachute systems are not designed for this situation, so BASE jumpers often use specially designed harnesses and parachute containers, with extra large pilot chutes, and many jump with only one parachute, since there would be little time to utilize a reserve parachute. If modified, by removing the bag and slider, stowing the lines in a tail pocket, and fitting a large pilot chute, standard skydiving gear can be used for lower BASE jumps, but is then prone to kinds of malfunction that are rare in normal skydiving (such as "line-overs" and broken lines).

Another risk is that most BASE jumping venues have very small areas in which to land. A beginner skydiver, after parachute deployment, may have a three-minute or more parachute ride to the ground. A BASE jump from 150 metres (490 ft) will have a parachute ride of only 10 to 15 seconds.

One way to make a parachute open very quickly is to use a static line or direct bag. These devices form an attachment between the parachute and the jump platform, which stretches out the parachute and suspension lines as the jumper falls, before separating and allowing the parachute to inflate. This method enables the very lowest jumps — below 60 metres (200 ft) — to be made, although most BASE jumpers are more motivated to make higher jumps involving free fall. This method is similar to the paratrooper's deployment system, also called a PCA (Pilot Chute Assist).

Legal issues

The legal issues concern permissions to use the object from which the jump is initiated and the area used for landing.

Surreptitious BASE jumps are often made from tall buildings and antenna towers. Many such BASE jumps must be covert because the owners of these objects are generally reluctant to allow their object to be used as a platform. While BASE jumping itself is generally not illegal, making events such as the "Go Fast Games" at the Royal Gorge Bridge possible, the covert nature of accessing objects usually necessitates trespassing on an object. Jumpers who are caught can expect to be charged with trespassing, as well as having charges like breaking and entering, reckless endangerment, vandalism, or other such charges pressed against them. Other people accompanying the jumper, such as ground crew, may also face charges. In some jurisdictions it may be permissible to use land until specifically told not to. Perrine Bridge in Twin Falls, Idaho, is an example of a man-made structure in the United States where BASE jumping is allowed year-round without a permit.

A BASE jumper leaving the Perrine Bridge in Idaho

Once a year, on the third Saturday in October ("Bridge Day"), permission to BASE jump has explicitly been granted at the New River Gorge Bridge in Fayetteville, West Virginia. The New River Gorge Bridge deck is 876 feet (267 m) above the river. This annual event attracts about 450 BASE jumpers and nearly 200,000 spectators.^[37] 1,100 jumps may occur during the six hours that it is legal provided good conditions. For many skydivers who would like to try BASE jumping, this bridge will be the only fixed object from which they ever jump. On 21 October 2006, veteran BASE jumper Brian Lee Schubert of Alta Loma, California died while jumping from the New River Gorge Bridge during Bridge Day activities because his parachute opened late; he plummeted to his death in the waters below. Jumps continued after the recovery of his body.^[38] He and his friend Michael Pelkey were the first to make a BASE jump from El Capitan in Yosemite National Park in 1966.

The National Park Service (NPS) has the authority to ban specific activities in US National Parks and has done so for BASE jumping. The authority comes from 36 CFR 2.17(3), which prohibits, "Delivering or retrieving a person or object by parachute, helicopter, or other airborne means, except in emergencies involving public safety or serious property loss, or pursuant to the terms and conditions of a permit." Under that Regulation, BASE is not banned, but is allowable if a permit is issued by the Superintendent, which means that a mechanism to allow BASE in National Parks was always in place. The 2001 National Park Service Management Policies state that BASE "is not an appropriate public use activity within national park areas ..." (2001 Management Policy 8.2.2.7.) However, Policy 8.2.2.7 in the 2006 volume of National Park Service Management Policies, which superseded the 2001 edition, states "Parachuting (or BASE jumping), whether from an aircraft, structure, or natural feature, is generally prohibited by 36 CFR 2.17(a)(3). However, if determined through a park planning process to be an appropriate activity, it may be allowed pursuant to the terms and conditions of a permit."

During the early days of BASE jumping, the NPS issued permits that authorized jumps from El Capitan. This program ran for three months in 1980 and then collapsed amid allegations of abuse by unauthorized jumpers. The NPS has since vigorously enforced the ban, charging jumpers with "aerial delivery into a National Park". One jumper drowned in the Merced River while evading arresting Park Rangers, having declared 'No way are they gonna get me. Let them chase me—I'll just laugh in their faces and jump in the river.'^[39] Despite incidents like this one, illegal jumps continue in Yosemite at a rate estimated at a few hundred per year, often at night or dawn. El Capitan, Half Dome and Glacier Point have been used as jump sites.

Other US public land, including land controlled by the Bureau of Land Management, does not ban air delivery, and there are numerous jumpable objects on BLM land.

The legal position is different at other sites and in other countries. For example, in Norway's Lysefjord (from the mountain Kjerag), BASE jumpers are made welcome. Many sites in the European Alps, near Chamonix and on the Eiger, are also open to jumpers. Some other Norwegian places, like the Troll Wall, are banned because of dangerous rescue missions in the past. In Austria, jumping from mountain cliffs is generally allowed, whereas the use of bridges (such as the Europabruecke near Innsbruck, Tirol) or dams is generally prohibited. Australia has some of the toughest stances on BASE jumping: it specifically bans BASE jumping from certain objects, such as the Sydney Harbour Bridge.

Fatalities

BASE jumping as of 2006 has an over-all fatality rate estimated at about one fatality per sixty participants.^[40] A study of 20,850 BASE jumps from the same site (the Kjerag Massif in Norway) reported 9 fatalities over the 11-year period from 1995 to 2005, or 1 in every 2,317 jumps.^[41][42] However, at that site, 1 in every 254 jumps over that period resulted in a nonfatal accident.^[41] BASE jumping is one of the most dangerous recreational activities in the world, with a fatality and injury rate 43 times as high as parachuting from a plane.^[41][42]

As of 10 September 2014, the 'BASE Fatality List' maintained by Blincmagazine.com records 256 deaths for BASE jumping since April 1981.^[43]

Dean Potter and Graham Hunt were killed in a BASE jump attempt at Yosemite National Park in California on May 16, 2015.^[44]

American BASE jumper Ian Flanders died in Kemaliye, Turkey on 21 July 2015, after his parachute was tangled into his feet causing him to fall into the Karasu river at high speed. The jump was being aired live on a local television station.^[45]

References

1. "BASENumbers.org". BASENumbers.org. Retrieved 2014-02-03.
2. Sangiro. "BASE Jumping Resource and Community". Basejumper.com. Retrieved 2014-02-03.
3. Dizikes, Cynthia (April 22, 2011). "BASE jumpers fall for thrill-seeking lifestyle". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 15 March 2012.
4. Rosenblatt, Roger (July 1999). "The Whole World Is Jumpable". Time 154 (3): 94. ISSN 0040-781X.
5. McCallum, Jack (August 26, 1985). "Who Needs An Airplane?". Sports Illustrated 63 (9).
6. Francis Trevelyan Miller, The world in the air: the story of flying in pictures, G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1930, pages 101-106
7. He's in the paratroops now, Alfred Day Rathbone, R.M. McBride & Company, 1943, University of California.
8. "Base Numbers". Base Numbers. Archived from the original on 11 May 2010. Retrieved 2010-05-18.
9. "BASENumbers.org". BASENumbers.org. Retrieved 2014-12-18.
10. "Video for "Lower Your Eyelids to Die With the Sun" by M83 (KTWC's Electropic Remix)". Youtube.com. 2012-01-04. Retrieved 2013-01-28.
11. Here meaning "greatest vertical descent," not "highest starting elevation."
12. "Leap from the top of the world - World". Sydney Morning Herald. 2006-06-08. Retrieved 2010-05-18.
13. "Chute mortelle d'un inventeur de un parachute". Le Temps (in French). February 5, 1912. p. 4. Retrieved July 12, 2013.
14. Russian edition of GEO magazine, issue 11, November 2006, GEO
15. Erich Felbermayr, eine Legende (in German)
16. "Mike Pelkey - A BASE Pioneer". Paradigm Adventures, Inc. Retrieved 26 March 2012.
17. Saltzman, Devyani (May 2010). "A towering work of fiction: Toronto's most famous structure narrates a novel that aims high". Literary Review of Canada. Retrieved 26 March 2012.
18. Geoff Craighead (July 15, 2009). "Daredevils, Protestors and Suicides". High-Rise Security and Fire Life Safety. Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 116. ISBN 9780080877853. Retrieved February 4, 2014. Quoting from: Gillespie, Angus K. "Twin Towers: the Life of New York City's World Trade Center." Rutgers University Press, 1999
19. Chic Scott, Pushing the Limits: The Story of Canadian Mountaineering, Calgary: Rocky Mountain Books, 2000, ISBN 0-921102-59-3, p. 298.
20. "Centrepoint Tower BASE jump 1982". YouTube. 2010-02-13. Retrieved 2014-02-04.
21. "Xtreme Sports Photography" (Xtreme Series) RotoVision (publisher) Simon Fraser (Author), ISBN 2-88046-755-1, Chapter on Photographing BASE Jumping by Doug Blane. October 2004
22. http://www.cnn.com/US/9611/21/parachutist/
23. Caesar, Ed (8 March 2009). "The Men Who Fall To Earth". http://www.edcaesar.co.uk/. The Sunday Times. Retrieved 16 January 2012. External link in |work= (help)
24. Tom Spender (24 November 2008). "Daredevils jumped off Burj Dubai undetected". The National. Archived from the original on 10 January 2010. Retrieved 4 January 2010.
25. Jan Bednarz; Robin Schmidt; Andy Harvey; DMC; Hervé Le Gallou (2008). "World record BASE jump". Current Edge. Current TV. Archived from the original on 14 January 2010. Retrieved 4 January 2010. Video documentary about the jump from the Burj Dubai tower.
26. Falling Angels | Anniken Binz | Blogs | Cooler - snow, surf, life & style Archived November 13, 2013, at the Wayback Machine.
27. "El Nacional Todo en Domingo". Impresodigital.el-nacional.com. Retrieved 2010-05-18.
28. Highest base jump-Nasr Al Niyadi and Omar Al Hegelan sets world record. Retrieved 2010-01-09.
29. "Daredevil makes record-breaking leap from Mount Everest". The Telegraph. Retrieved 29 May 2013.
30. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nz7sxt9xeJE#t=51
31. Haley Draznin (26 March 2014). "Four men arrested in One World Trade Center jump stunt". CNN website. Retrieved 29 March 2014.
32. http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2588211/Three-men-base-jumped-World-Trade-Center-hand-police-helmet-cam-video.html
33. "HIGHEST BASE JUMP FROM A BUILDING". Guinness World Records Limited. Retrieved 26 Apr 2014.
34. "Fred Fugen and Vincent Reffet took BASE jumping higher than ever before in Dubai.". Red Bull. Retrieved 26 Apr 2014.
35. Video: When Dogs Fly – Dean Potter Takes His Dog Whisper BASE Jumping National Geographic.
36. "Falleció Ramón Rojas, chileno récord mundial de salto base" (in Spanish). El Mercurio. 20 September 2014. Retrieved 22 September 2014.
37. "Bridge Day 2013 - BASE Jumping Registration and Event Information". Bridgeday.info. Retrieved 2014-02-04.
38. "BASE jumper dies at bridge event in West Virginia". USA Today. 22 October 2006. Retrieved 26 April 2010.
39. "Frank Gambalie Lived and Died for BASE Jumping". ESPN Magazine. 2000-02-21.
40. Westman, A; Rosen, M; Berggren, P; Bjornstig, U (7 April 2008). "Parachuting from fixed objects: descriptive study of 106 fatal events in BASE jumping 1981-2006". British Journal of Sports Medicine 42 (6): 431–436. doi:10.1136/bjsm.2008.046565.
41. Soreide, K; Ellingsen, CL; Knutson, V (May 2007). "How dangerous is BASE jumping? An analysis of adverse events in 20,850 jumps from the Kjerag Massif, Norway.". The Journal of trauma 62 (5): 1113–7. doi:10.1097/01.ta.0000239815.73858.88. PMID 17495709.
42. "Risk of dying and sporting activities". Medicine.ox.ac.uk. 2003-05-26. Retrieved 2014-02-04.
43. "BASE Fatality List". Blincmagazine.com. Retrieved 2015-05-18.
44. "Dean Potter, Extreme Climber, Dies in BASE-Jumping Accident at Yosemite". New York Times. 2015-05-17.
45. "American BASE jumper dies in fatal plunge in Turkey". CBS News. 22 July 2015. Retrieved 23 July 2015.

Further reading

• "The Great Book of BASE". BirdBrain Publishing. July, 2010.
• "The Ground's the Limit". Texas Monthly. December 1981.
• "BASE Fatality Statistics". BLiNC Magazine. July 2011.

External links

• Parachuting from fixed objects: descriptive study of 106 fatal events in BASE jumping 1981–2006
• Luigi Cani base jumps off a cliff
• A Sport to Die For ESPN, Michael Abrams
• First Dog Ever To BaseJump