Bedouin

Not to be confused with Bedoon (ethnicity) or Baudouin of Belgium.
"Bedu" redirects here. For the village in Iran, see Biduiyeh, Sirjan.
Bedouin

A Bedouin family in Oman
Total population
(21,250,700[1])
Regions with significant populations
 Sudan 10,199,000[2]
 Algeria 230,000[3]-2,257,000[4]
 Saudi Arabia 1,167,000 (2013)[5]
 Iraq 1,437,000
 Jordan 380,000 (2007)[6]
 Libya 916,000[7][8][9][10][11]
 Egypt 902,000 (2007)[12][13]
 UAE 763,000[14]
 Syria 620,000 (2013)[15][16][17]
 Yemen 457,000[18]
 Kuwait 290,000[19]
 Tunisia 177,000[20][21][22]
 Morocco 144,000[23][24]
 Israel 250,000 (2012)[25]
 Mauritania 54,000[26]
 Bahrain 50,000
 Lebanon 47,000[27]
 Qatar 39,000
 Palestine 30,000[28]
 Oman 28,000
 Western Sahara 13,300[29][30]
Languages
Arabic dialects:   Bedawi • Hejazi • Najdi • Hassāniyya
Religion
Sunni Islam • Shia Islam
Related ethnic groups
Arabs

The Bedouin (/ˈbɛdᵿ.ɪn/; Arabic: بَدَوِي badawī) are an Arab seminomadic group, descended from nomads who have historically inhabited the Arabian and Syrian deserts. Their name means "desert dwellers" in Arabic language.[31] Their territory stretches from the vast deserts of North Africa to the rocky sands of the Middle East.[31] They are traditionally divided into tribes, or clans (known in Arabic as ʿashāʾir; عَشَائِر) and share a common culture of herding camels and goats.[31]

The Bedouin form a part of, but are not synonymous with, the modern concept of the Arabs. Bedouins have been referred to by various names throughout history, including Qedarites in the Old Testament and Arabaa by the Assyrians (ar-ba-a-a being a nisba of the noun Arab, a name still used for Bedouins today). They are referred to as the Aarab (أعراب) in the Koran.

A Bedouin girl in Nuweiba - Egypt 2015

While many Bedouins have abandoned their nomadic and tribal traditions for modern urban lifestyle, they retain traditional Bedouin culture with concepts of belonging to ʿašāʾir, traditional music, poetry, dances (like Saas), and many other cultural practices. Urbanised Bedouins also organise cultural festivals, usually held several times a year, in which they gather with other Bedouins to partake in, and learn about, various Bedouin traditions - from poetry recitation and traditional sword dances, to classes teaching traditional tent knitting and playing traditional Bedouin musical instruments. Traditions like camel riding and camping in the deserts are also popular leisure activities for urbanised Bedouins who live within close proximity to deserts or other wilderness areas.

Etymology

The term "Bedouin" derives from a plural form of the Arabic word badawī, as it is pronounced in colloquial dialects. The Arabic term badawī (بدوي) literally translates in Arabic[32] as "nomad" or "wanderer." It is derived from the word bādiyah (بَادِية), which means "plain" or "desert".[33] The term "Bedouin" therefore means "those in bādiyah" or "those in the desert". In English usage, however, the form "Bedouin" is commonly used for the singular term, the plural being "Bedouins", as indicated by the Oxford English Dictionary, second edition.

The term "Bedouin" also uses the same root-word as the Arabic noun for "the beginning"; "بداية"; "Bedaya." The Arabs believe the Bedouins to be the predecessors to the settled Arabs,[notes 1] and the word for the ethnicity itself may be influenced by that.[36]

Society

A widely quoted Bedouin saying is "I against my brother, my brother and I against my cousin, and my cousin and I against the stranger". This saying signifies a hierarchy of loyalties based on proximity of kinship that runs from the nuclear family through the lineage, the tribe, and, in principle at least, to an entire genetic or linguistic group (which is perceived to have a kinship basis). Disputes are settled, interests are pursued, and justice and order are maintained by means of this frame, according to an ethic of self-help and collective responsibility (Andersen 14). The individual family unit (known as a tent or gio bayt) typically consisted of three or four adults (a married couple plus siblings or parents) and any number of children.

When resources were plentiful, several tents would travel together as a goum. These groups were sometimes linked by patriarchal lineage, but were just as likely linked by marriage (new wives were especially likely to have close male relatives join them), acquaintance, or no clearly defined relation but a simple shared membership in the tribe.

The next scale of interaction within groups was the ibn ʿamm (cousin, or literally "son of an uncle") or descent group, commonly of three to five generations. These were often linked to goums, but where a goum would generally consist of people all with the same herd type, descent groups were frequently split up over several economic activities, thus allowing a degree of 'risk management'; should one group of members of a descent group suffer economically, the other members of the descent group would be able to support them. Whilst the phrase "descent group" suggests purely a lineage-based arrangement, in reality these groups were fluid and adapted their genealogies to take in new members.

The largest scale of tribal interactions is the tribe as a whole, led by a Sheikh (Arabic: شيخ‎ šayḫ, literally, "old man"). The tribe often claims descent from one common ancestor—as mentioned above. The tribal level is the level that mediated between the Bedouin and the outside governments and organizations. Distinct structure of the Bedouin society leads to long lasting rivalries between different clans.

Bedouin traditionally had strong honor codes, and traditional systems of justice dispensation in Bedouin society typically revolved around such codes. The bisha'a, or ordeal by fire, is a well-known Bedouin practice of lie detection. See also: Honor codes of the Bedouin, Bedouin systems of justice.

Weaving lengths of fabric for tent making using ground loom. Palestine, circa 1900

Traditions

Livestock and herding, principally of goats and dromedary camels comprised the traditional livelihoods of Bedouins. These two animals were used for meat, dairy products and wool.[37] Most of the staple foods that made up the Bedouins' diet were dairy products.[37]

Camels, in particular, had numerous cultural and functional uses. Having been regarded as a "gift from God", they were the main food source and method of transportation for many Bedouins.[38] In addition to their extraordinary milking potentials under harsh desert conditions, their meat was occasionally consumed by Bedouins.[39] As a cultural tradition, camel races were organized during celebratory occasions, such as weddings or religious festivals.[40]

Oral poetry was the most popular art form among Bedouins. Having a poet in one's tribe was highly regarded in society. In addition to serving as a form of art, poetry was used as a means of conveying information and social control.[41]

History

Early history

Murder of Ma'sum Beg, the envoy of the Safavid Shah Tahmasp, by Beduins in the Hejaz, 16th century

Historically, the Bedouin engaged in nomadic herding, agriculture and sometimes fishing. A major source of income was the taxation of caravans, and tributes collected from non-Bedouin settlements. They also earned income by transporting goods and people in caravans across the desert.[42] Scarcity of water and of permanent pastoral land required them to move constantly.

The Moroccan traveller, Ibn Battuta, reported that in 1326 on the route to Gaza, the Egyptian authorities had a customs post at Qatya on the north coast of Sinai. Here Bedouin were being used to guard the road and track down those trying to cross the border without permission.[43]

The Early Medieval grammarians and scholars seeking to develop a system of standardizing the contemporary Classical Arabic for maximal intelligibility across the Arabophone areas, believed that the Bedouin spoke the purest, most conservative variety of the language. To solve irregularities of pronunciation, the Bedouin were asked to recite certain poems, whereafter consensus was relied on to decide the pronunciation and spelling of a given word.[44]

Ottoman period

Under the Tanzimat reforms in 1858 a new Ottoman Land Law was issued which offered legal grounds for the displacement of the Bedouin. As the Ottoman Empire gradually lost power, this law instituted an unprecedented land registration process which was also meant to boost the empire's tax base. Few Bedouin opted to register their lands with the Ottoman Tapu, due to lack of enforcement by the Ottomans, illiteracy, refusal to pay taxes and lack of relevance of written documentation of ownership to the Bedouin way of life at that time.[45]

At the end of the 19th century Sultan Abdülhamid II settled loyal Muslim populations (Circassians) from the Balkan and Caucasus among areas predominantly populated by the nomads in the regions of modern Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel and Palestine, and also created several permanent Bedouin settlements, although the majority of them did not remain.[46]

Ottoman authorities also initiated private acquisition of large plots of state land offered by the sultan to the absentee landowners (effendis). Numerous tenants were brought in order to cultivate the newly acquired lands. Often it came at the expense of the Bedouin lands.

In the late 19th century, many Bedouin began transition to a semi-nomadic lifestyle. One of the factors was the influence of the Ottoman empire authorities[47] who started a forced sedentarization of the Bedouin living on its territory. The Ottoman authorities viewed the Bedouin as a threat to the state's control and worked hard on establishing law and order in the Negev.[46] During World War I, the Negev Bedouin fought with the Turks against the British, but later withdrew from the conflict. Hamad Pasha al-Sufi (died 1923), Sheikh of the Nijmat sub-tribe of the Tarabin, led a force of 1,500 men which joined the Turkish offensive against the Suez Canal.[48]

In Orientalist historiography, the Negev Bedouin have been described as remaining largely unaffected by changes in the outside world until recently. Their society was often considered a "world without time."[49] Recent scholars have challenged the notion of the Bedouin as 'fossilized,' or 'stagnant' reflections of an unchanging desert culture. Emanuel Marx has shown that Bedouin were engaged in a constantly dynamic reciprocal relation with urban centers.[50] Bedouin scholar Michael Meeker explains that "the city was to be found in their midst."[51]

In the 20th century

Bedouin mothers carrying their children on their shoulders. Color photo taken in the late 19th century by the French photographer Félix Bonfils

In the 1950s and 1960 large numbers of Bedouin throughout Midwest Asia started to leave the traditional, nomadic life to settle in the cities of Midwest Asia, especially as hot ranges have shrunk and populations have grown. For example, in Syria, the Bedouin way of life effectively ended during a severe drought from 1958 to 1961, which forced many Bedouin to abandon herding for standard jobs.[52][53] Similarly, governmental policies in Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Iraq, Tunisia, oil-producing Arab states of the Persian Gulf and Libya,[54][55] as well as a desire for improved standards of living, effectively led most Bedouin to become settled citizens of various nations, rather than stateless nomadic herders.

Governmental policies pressing the Bedouin have in some cases been executed in an attempt to provide service (schools, health-care, law enforcement and so on—see Chatty 1986 for examples), but in others have been based on the desire to seize land traditionally roved and controlled by the Bedouin. In recent years, some Bedouin have adopted the pastime of raising and breeding white doves,[56] while others have rejuvenated the traditional practice of falconry.[57][58]

In different countries

Arabian Peninsula

In Saudi Arabia

Bedouin man in Riyadh,1964.

The Arabian Peninsula is the original home of the Bedouin. From here they started to spread out to surrounding deserts, forced out by the lack of water and food. According to tradition, the Saudi Bedouin are descendants of two groups. One group, the Yemenis, settled in the Southwestern Arabia, in the mountains of Yemen, and claim they descend from a semi-legendary ancestral figure, Qahtan (or Joktan). The second group, the Qaysis, settled in North-Central Arabia and claimed they were descendants of the Biblical Ishmael.[59]

A number of additional Bedouin tribes reside in Saudi Arabia. Among them are the, Enazah, Shammar, al-Murrah, Qara, Mahra, Harasis, Dawasir, Harb, Mutayr, Subaie, 'Utayba, Qahtan, and Yam. In Arabia and the adjacent deserts there are around 100 large tribes of 1,000 members or more. Some tribes number up to 20,000 and a few of the larger tribes may have up to 100,000 members.

Inside Saudi Arabia the Bedouin remained the majority of the population during the first half of the 20th century. However, due to change of lifestyle their number has decreased dramatically.

Levant

In Syria

Syrian bedouin, 1893

Although the Arabian desert was the homeland of the Bedouin, some groups have migrated to the north. It was one of the first lands inhabited by the Bedouin outside the Arabian desert.[16] Today there are over a million Bedouin living in Syria, making a living herding sheep and goats.[60] The largest Bedouin clan in Syria is called Ruwallah who are part of the 'Anizzah' tribe. Another famous branch of the Anizzah tribe is the two distinct groups of Hasana and S'baa who largely arrived from the Arabian peninsula in the 18th century.[61]

Herding among the Bedouin was common until the late 1950s, when it effectively ended during a severe drought from 1958 to 1961. Due to the drought, many Bedouin were forced to give up herding for standard jobs.[62] Another factor was the formal annulling of the Bedouin tribes’ legal status in Syrian law in 1958, along with attempts of the ruling Ba'ath Party regime to wipe out tribalism. Preferences for customary law (‘urf) in contrast to state law (qanun) have been informally acknowledged and tolerated by the state in order to avoid having its authority tested in the tribal territories.[63] In 1982 the al-Assad family turned to the Bedouin tribe leaders for assistance during the Muslim Brotherhood uprising against al-Assad government (see 1982 Hama massacre). The Bedouin sheikhs' decision to support Hafez al-Assad led to a change in attitude on the part of the government that permitted the Bedouin leadership to manage and transform critical state development efforts supporting their own status, customs and leadership.

As a result of Syrian Civil War some Bedouins became refugees and found shelter in Jordan,[64] Turkey, Lebanon, and other states.

In Israe- Palestine

Further information: Negev Bedouin
Bedouin squatter compound in the Naqab Desert
Rahat School
Hura downtown

Prior to the 1948 Israeli Declaration of Independence, an estimated 65,000–90,000 Bedouins lived in the Negev desert. According to Encyclopedia Judaica, 15,000 Bedouin remained in the Negev after 1948; other sources put the number as low as 11,000.[65]

In 1999, 110,000 Bedouins lived in the Negev, 50,000 in the Galilee and 10,000 in the central region of Israel.[66]

All of the Palestinian Bedouin were granted Israeli citizenship in 1954.[67]

The Bedouin who remained in the Negev belonged to the Tiaha confederation[68] as well as some smaller groups such as the 'Azazme and the Jahalin. After 1948, some Negev Bedouins were displaced. The Jahalin tribe, for instance, lived in the Tel Arad region of the Negev prior to the 1950s. In the early 1950s, the Jahalin were among the tribes which, according to Emmanuel Marks, "moved or were removed by the military government."[69] They ended up in the so-called E1 area East of Jerusalem.

About 1,600 Bedouin serve as volunteers in the Israel Defense Forces, many as trackers in the IDF's elite tracking units.[70]

Famously, Bedouin shepherds were the first to discover the Dead Sea Scrolls, a collection of Jewish texts from antiquity, in the Judean caves of Qumran in 1946. Of great religious, cultural, historical and linguistic significance, 972 texts were found over the following decade, many of which were discovered by Bedouins.

Successive Israeli administrations tried to demolish Bedouins villages in the Negev. Between 1967 and 1989, Israel built seven townships in the north-east of the Negev, with Tel as-Sabi or Tel Sheva the first. The largest, city of Rahat, has a population of over 58,700 (as of December 2013);[71] as such it is the largest Bedouin settlement in the world. Another well known township out of the seven of them that the Israeli government built, is Hura. According to the Israel Land Administration (2007), some 60 per cent of the Negev Bedouin live in urban areas.[72] As for the rest, they live in so-called unrecognized villages which are not officially recognized by the state due to general planning issues. They were built chaotically without taking into consideration local infrastructure. These communities are scattered all over the Northern Negev and often are situated in inappropriate places, such as military fire zones, natural reserves, landfills, etc.

On September 29, 2003 Israeli government has adapted a new "Abu Basma Plan" (Resolution 881), according to which a new regional council was formed, unifying a number of unrecognized Bedouin settlements - Abu Basma Regional Council.[73] This resolution also regarded the need to establish seven new Bedouin settlements in the Negev,[74] literally meaning the official recognition of unrecognized settlements, providing them with a municipal status and consequently with all the basic services and infrastructure. The council was established by the Interior Ministry on 28 January 2004.[75]

Israel is currently building or enlarging some 13 towns and cities in the Negev. According to the general planning, all of them will be fully equipped with the relevant infrastructure: schools, medical clinics, postal offices, etc. and they also will have electricity, running water and waste control. Several new industrial zones meant to fight unemployment are planned, some are already being constructed, like Idan haNegev in the suburbs of Rahat.[76] It will have a hospital and a new campus inside.[77] The Bedouins of Israel receive free education and medical services from the state. They are allotted child cash benefits, which has contributed to the high birthrate among the Bedouin (5% growth per year). But unemployment rate remains very high, and few obtain a high school degree (4%), and even fewer graduate from college (0.6%).[78]

In September 2011, the Israeli government approved a five-year economic development plan called the Prawer plan.[79] One of its implications is a relocation of some 30.000-40.000 Negev Bedouin from areas not recognized by the government to government-approved townships.[80][81] In a 2012 resolution the European Parliament called for the withdrawal of the Prawer plan and respect for the rights of the Bedouin people.[82] In September 2014, Yair Shamir, who heads the Israeli government's ministerial committee on Bedouin resettlement arrangements, stated that the government was examining ways to lower the birthrate of the Bedouin community in order to improve its standard of living. Shamir claimed that without intervention, the Bedouin population could exceed half a million by 2035.[83][84]

In Jordan

A young Bedouin lighting a camp fire in Wadi Rum, Jordan

Most of the Bedouin tribes migrated from the Arabian Peninsula to what is Jordan today between the 14th and 18th centuries.[85] Today Bedouins make up from 33%[86] to 40%[87] of the population of Jordan. Often they are referred to as a backbone of the Kingdom,[86][88] since Bedouin clans traditionally support the monarchy.[89]

Most of Jordan’s Bedouin live in the vast wasteland that extends east from the Desert Highway.[90] The eastern Bedouin are camel breeders and herders, while the western Bedouin herd sheep and goats. Some Bedouin in Jordan are semi-nomads, they adopt a nomadic existence during part of the year but return to their lands and homes in time to practice agriculture.

The largest tribe in Jordan is Bani Hasan who lives in east, center, and south of the country. Bani Hasan tribe members are around 1 million people, they are famous as the 1 Million Tribe and they are considered as the most powerful tribe in the kingdom. The largest nomadic groups of Jordan are the Banū (Banī laith; they reside in Petra), baniṢakhr and Banū al-Ḥuwayṭāt (they reside in Wadi Rum).[91] There are numerous lesser groups, such as the al-Sirḥān (they live near the Iraqi border on the north of Jordan), Banū Khālid, Hawazim, ʿAṭiyyah, and Sharafāt. The Ruwālah (Rwala) tribe, which is not indigenous, passes through Jordan in its yearly wandering from Syria to Saudi Arabia.[92]

The Jordanian government provides the Bedouin with different services such as education, housing and health clinics. However, some Bedouins give it up and prefer their traditional nomadic lifestyle.

In the recent years there is a growing discontent of the Bedouin with the ruling monarch, but the king manages to deal with it. In August 2007, police clashed with some 200 Bedouins who were blocking the main highway between Amman and the port of Aqaba. Livestock herders, they were protesting the government's lack of support in the face of the steeply rising cost of animal feed, and expressed resentment about government assistance to refugees.[86]

Arab Spring events in 2011 led to demonstrations in Jordan, and Bedouins took part in them. But it is unlikely that the Hashemites are to expect a revolt similar to turbulence in other Arab states. The main reasons for that are the high respect to the monarch, and contradictory interests of different groups of the Jordanian society. The King Abdullah II maintains his distance from the complaints by allowing blame to fall on government ministers, whom he replaces at will.[93]

North Africa

In the 11th century, reigning over Ifriqiya, the Zirids somehow recognised the sovereignty of the caliph of Cairo. Probably in 1048, the ruler or viceroy Zirid, al-Mu'izz, decided to stop this sovereignty. The Fatimids were then powerless to lead a punitive expedition.

In the 11th century, the Bedouin tribes of Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym, who originated from Syria and North Arabia respectively,[94] lived in a desert between the Nile and the Red Sea moved westward into the Maghreb areas and were joined by a third Bedouin tribe of Maqil, which had its roots in South Arabia.[94] The vizier of the caliph of Cairo chose to let go of the Maghreb and obtained the agreement of his sovereign. They set off with women, children, camping equipment, some stopping on the way, especially in Cyrenaica, where they are still one of the essential elements of the settlement, but most arrived in Ifriqiya by the Gabes region, Berber armies were defeated in trying to protect the walls of Kairouan.

The Zirids abandoned Kairouan to take refuge on the coast where they survived for a century. Ifriqiya, the Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym spread is on the high plains of Constantine where they gradually choked the Qal'a of Banu Hammad, as they had done Kairouan few decades ago. From there, they gradually gained the upper Algiers and Oran plains, some were taken to the Moulouya valley and in Doukkala plains by the Caliph of Marrakesh in the second half of the 12th century.

In the 13th century, they occupy all the Maghreb plains with the exception of the main mountain ranges and some coastal regions which served as refuges for the natives. They gave up their old trade breeder of camels to look after the care of the sheep and oxen.

Ibn Khaldun, a Muslim Historian writes: "Similar to an army of locusts, they destroy everything in their path."[95]

The Bedouin dialects are used in Maghrebi regions of Morocco Atlantic Coast, in regions of High Plains and Sahara in Algeria, in regions of Tunisian Sahel and in regions of Tripolitania. The Bedouin dialects has four major varieties:[96][97]

In Morocco, Bedouin dialects are spoken in plains and in recently founded cities such as Casablanca. Thus, the dialect shares with the Bedouin dialects gal 'to say' (qala), they also represent the bulk of modern Urban dialects (Koinés), such as those of Oran and Algiers.[98]

In Egypt

Bedouins in Egypt mostly reside in the Sinai peninsula and in the suburbs of the Egyptian capital of Cairo.[99] The past few decades have been difficult for traditional Bedouin culture due to changing surroundings and the establishment of new resort towns on the Red Sea coast, such as Sharm el-Sheikh. Bedouins in Egypt are facing a number of challenges: erosion of traditional values, unemployment, and various land issues. With urbanization and new education opportunities, Bedouins started to marry outside their tribe, a practice that once was completely inappropriate.[99]

Bedouins living in the Sinai peninsula didn't benefit much from employment in the initial construction boom due to low wages offered. Sudanese and Egyptians workers were brought here as construction laborers instead. When the tourist industry started to bloom, local Bedouins increasingly moved into new service positions such as cab drivers, tour guides, campgrounds or cafe managers. However, the competition is very high, and many Sinai Bedouins are unemployed. Since there are not enough employment opportunities, Tarabin Bedouins as well as other Bedouin tribes living along the border between Egypt and Israel are involved in inter-border smuggling of drugs and weapons,[99] as well as infiltration of prostitutes and African labor workers.

In most countries in the Middle East the Bedouin have no land rights, only users’ privileges,[100] and it is especially true for Egypt. Since the mid-1980s, the Bedouins who held desirable coastal property have lost control of much of their land as it was sold by the Egyptian government to hotel operators. The Egyptian government did not see the land as belonging to Bedouin tribes, but rather as a state property.

In the summer of 1999, the latest dispossession of land took place when the army bulldozed Bedouin-run tourist campgrounds north of Nuweiba as part of the final phase of hotel development in the sector, overseen by the Tourist Development Agency (TDA). The director of the Tourist Development Agency dismissed Bedouin rights to most of the land, saying that they had not lived on the coast prior to 1982. Their traditional semi-nomadic culture has left Bedouins vulnerable to such claims.[101]

The Egyptian Revolution of 2011 brought more freedom to the Sinai Bedouin, but since it was deeply involved in weapon smuggling into Gaza after a number of terror attacks on the Egypt-Israel border a new Egyptian government has started a military operation in Sinai in the summer-fall of 2012. Egyptian army has demolished over 120 underground tunnels leading from Egypt to Gaza that were used as smuggling channels and gave profit to the Bedouin families on the Egyptian side, as well as the Palestinian clans on the other side of the border. Thus the army has delivered a threatening message to local Bedouin, compelling them to cooperate with state troops and officials. After negotiations the military campaign ended up with a new agreement between the Bedouin and Egyptian authorities.[102]

Tribes and populations

Bedouin woman of the in Moroccan steppe
Map of the Bedouin tribes in 1908

There are a number of Bedouin tribes, but the total population is often difficult to determine, especially as many Bedouin have ceased to lead nomadic or semi-nomadic lifestyles. Below is a partial list of Bedouin tribes and their historic place of origin.

Bedouin shepherd in Syrian Desert
Bedouin IDF soldiers of Rumat al-Heib (رُمة الهيب) during a military parade in Tel Aviv in June 1949.

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ According to Hadith, Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab said of the Bedouin, "[T]hey are the origin of the Arabs and the substance of Islam."[34][35]

References

  1. ↑ Elizabeth Losleben (2003). The Bedouin of the Middle East. Lerner Publications. pp. 4–5. ISBN 978-0-8225-0663-8. Retrieved 1 November 2012.
  2. ↑ Joshua Project. "Country - Sudan". Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  3. ↑ Algeria-Watch. "Selon le dernier recensement: L'Algérie compte 34,8 millions d'habitants". Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  4. ↑ Joshua Project. "Country - Algeria". Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  5. ↑ Joshua Project. "Bedouin". Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  6. ↑ "Social characteristics for Badia - The Hashemite Fund for Development of Jordan Badia". Retrieved 8 April 2016.
  7. ↑ Joshua Project. "Bedouin, Sanusi in Libya". Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  8. ↑ Joshua Project. "Bedouin, Sirtican in Libya". Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  9. ↑ Joshua Project. "Bedouin, Riyah in Libya". Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  10. ↑ Joshua Project. "Bedouin, Kufra in Libya". Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  11. ↑ Joshua Project. "Bedouin, Fezzan in Libya". Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  12. ↑ Joshua Project. "Bedouin, Eastern Bedawi in Egypt". Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  13. ↑ "Bedouin Take On the Govt". Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  14. ↑ Joshua Project. "Bedouin, Gulf in United Arab Emirates". Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  15. ↑ "Saudi Arabia to aid Jordan with Syrian refugees". The Jerusalem Post - JPost.com. Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  16. 1 2 Joshua Project. "Arab, Najdi Bedouin in Syria". Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  17. ↑ "KSA sets up 5,000 tents for Syrian refugees". Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  18. ↑ Joshua Project. "People Groups". Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  19. ↑ Joshua Project. "Country - Kuwait". Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  20. ↑ Joshua Project. "Bedouin, Jerid in Tunisia". Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  21. ↑ Joshua Project. "Bedouin, Gafsa in Tunisia". Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  22. ↑ Joshua Project. "Bedouin, Arad in Tunisia". Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  23. ↑ Joshua Project. "Bedouin, Yahia in Morocco". Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  24. ↑ Joshua Project. "Bedouin, Gil in Morocco". Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  25. ↑ "Despite hardships, some Bedouins still feel obligation to serve Israel". Jewish Telegraphic Agency. Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  26. ↑ Joshua Project. "Bedouin, Berabish in Mauritania". Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  27. ↑ Joshua Project. "Bedouin, Levantine in Lebanon". Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  28. ↑ Hugh Naylor. "Israel plans to move West Bank Bedouin". Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  29. ↑ Joshua Project. "Bedouin, Arosien in Western Sahara". Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  30. ↑ Joshua Project. "Bedouin, Tajakant in Western Sahara". Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  31. 1 2 3 "Libya". Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  32. ↑ "Google Translate". Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  33. ↑ Steven E. Sidebotham; Martin Hense; Hendrikje M. Nouwens (2008). The Red Land: The Illustrated Archaeology of Egypt's Eastern Desert. American Univ in Cairo Press. p. 257. ISBN 978-977-416-094-3. Retrieved 1 November 2012.
  34. ↑ Sahih al-Bukhari, Vol. 4, p. 206.
  35. ↑ A. A. Duri. The Historical Formation of the Arab Nation (2012 edition). p. 114.
  36. ↑ "OneWorld Magazine: Deserts". Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  37. 1 2 K. Abu-Saad, S. Weitzman, Y. Abu-Rabiah, H. Abu-Shareb & D. Fraser. "Rapid lifestyle, diet and health changes among urban Bedouin Arabs of southern Israel". Food and Agriculture Organization. Retrieved 31 July 2015.
  38. ↑ Marc Breulmann, Benno Böer, Ulrich Wernery, Renate Wernery, Hassan El Shaer, Ghaleb Alhadrami, David Gallacher, John Peacock, Shaukat Ali Chaudhary, Gary Brown & John Norton. "The Camel From Tradition to Modern Times" (PDF). UNESCO. p. 10. Retrieved 31 July 2015.
  39. ↑ Marc Breulmann, Benno Böer, Ulrich Wernery, Renate Wernery, Hassan El Shaer, Ghaleb Alhadrami, David Gallacher, John Peacock, Shaukat Ali Chaudhary, Gary Brown & John Norton. "The Camel From Tradition to Modern Times" (PDF). UNESCO. pp. 21–24. Retrieved 31 July 2015.
  40. ↑ Marc Breulmann, Benno Böer, Ulrich Wernery, Renate Wernery, Hassan El Shaer, Ghaleb Alhadrami, David Gallacher, John Peacock, Shaukat Ali Chaudhary, Gary Brown & John Norton. "The Camel From Tradition to Modern Times" (PDF). UNESCO. p. 25. Retrieved 31 July 2015.
  41. ↑ Meisami, Julie Scott; Starkey, Paul. Encyclopedia of Arabic Literature. Routledge. p. 147. ISBN 978-0415571135.
  42. ↑ HIDDEN HISTORY, SECRET PRESENT: THE ORIGINS AND STATUS OF AFRICAN PALESTINIANS, Susan Beckerleg, translated by Salah Al Zaroo On Africans in the Negev Desert
  43. ↑ Ibn Battuta (1929) Travels in Asia and Africa. 1325-1354. Translated and selected by H.A.R. Gibb. Low Price Publications, Delhi-110052. ISBN 81-7536-174-3. p54
  44. ↑ Holes, Clive (2004). Modern Arabic: Structures, Functions and Varieties. Washington DC: Georgetown University Press. p. 12.
  45. ↑ Gershon Shafir, Land, Labor and the Origins of the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict 1882-1914. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
  46. 1 2 Dr. Seth J. Frantzman, Ruth Kark Bedouin Settlement in Late Ottoman and British Mandatory Palestine: Influence on the Cultural and Environmental Landscape,1000 years ago god created the bedouins and told them that when they were born, they wil need to have circunsition and sometimes castration 1870-1948
  47. ↑ Jodi Magness, The Archaeology of the Early Islamic Settlement in Palestine, Eisenbrauns, 2003, p.82
  48. ↑ Palestine Exploration Quarterly (October 1937). Page 244.
  49. ↑ Kurt Goering (Autumn 1979). "Israel and the Bedouin of the Negev". Journal of Palestine Studies 9 (1): 3–20. doi:10.1525/jps.1979.9.1.00p0173n.
  50. ↑ Emanuel Marx. "Nomads and Cities: The Development of a Conception"; in, S. Leder/B. Streck (ed.): Shifts and Drifts in Nomad-Sedentary Relations. Nomaden und Sesshafte 2, Wiesbaden 2005
  51. ↑ S. Leder/B. Streck (ed.): Shifts and Drifts in Nomad-Sedentary Relations., Nomaden und Sesshafte 2, Wiesbaden 2005
  52. ↑ Laura Etheredge, Syria, Lebanon and Jordan, page 12.
  53. ↑ Marina Leybourne, Ronald Jaubert, Richard N. Tutwiler, Changes in Migration and Feeding Patterns Among Semi-nomadic pastoralists in Northern Syria
  54. ↑ "The Bedouin of Cyrenaica". Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  55. ↑ "Bedouin, Settlers, and Holiday-makers". Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  56. ↑ "Bedouin hospitality & the beauty of the White Desert". Natalie Peart - Part of this World. Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  57. ↑ "Falconry". Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  58. ↑ Reuters (22 May 2013). "Falconry in the desert". chicagotribune.com. Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  59. ↑ Bedouins. Origins and history
  60. ↑ The Bedouin Arab of Syria
  61. ↑ Johann Buessow, Bedouin Syria: ‘Anaza groups between empire and nation state, 1800-1960
  62. ↑ "Indigenous Peoples of the World: The Bedouin". Intercontinental Cry. Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  63. ↑ Dawn Chatty, The Bedouin in Contemporary Syria: The Persistence of Tribal Authority and Control
  64. ↑ Syrian bedouin find shelter in Jordan, Aljazeera, March 10, 2012
  65. ↑ Khalidi, Walid (Ed.) (1992) All That Remains. The Palestinian Villages Occupied and Depopulated by Israel in 1948. IoPS, Washington. ISBN 0-88728-224-5. Page 582.
  66. ↑ The Bedouin in Israel: Demography Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs 1 July 1999
  67. ↑ Report of the Commission to Propose a Policy for Arranging Bedouin Settlement in the Negev, a.k.a. the Goldberg Report, pp. 6-13 (in the Hebrew version)
  68. ↑ Lustick, Ian (1980). Arabs in the Jewish State. Austin: University of Texas Press. pp. 57, 134–6.
  69. ↑ Marks, Emmanuel (1974). Bedouin Society in the Negev (in Hebrew). Tel-Aviv: Rashafim. p. 17.
  70. ↑ http://english.alarabiya.net/en/perspective/profiles/2013/04/24/Bedouin-army-trackers-scale-Israel-social-ladder-.html
  71. ↑ "POPULATION AND DENSITY PER SQ. KM. IN LOCALITIES NUMBERING 5,000 RESIDENTS AND MORE ON 31 XII 2013(1)" (PDF). Israel Central Bureau of Statistics.
  72. ↑ Bedouin of the Negev
  73. ↑ Beduin in Limbo The Jerusalem Post, 24 December 2007
  74. ↑ Government resolutions passed in recent years regarding the Arab population of Israel Abraham Fund Initiative
  75. ↑ The Bedouin Population in Transition: Site Visit to Abu Basma Regional Council Myers-JDC-Brookdale Institute, 28 June 2005
  76. ↑ Idan Hanegev Industrial Park
  77. ↑ Itamar Eichner, Harvard University makes aliyah, ynet, April 1, 2012
  78. ↑ Joshua Project. "Arab, Bedouin in Saudi Arabia". Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  79. ↑ Cabinet Approves Plan to Provide for the Status of Communities in, and the Economic Development of, the Bedouin Sector in the Negev, PMO official site, September 11, 2012
  80. ↑ Al Jazeera, 13 September 2011, Bedouin transfer plan shows Israel's racism
  81. ↑ Guardian, 3 November 2011, Bedouin's plight: "We want to maintain our traditions. But it's a dream here"
  82. ↑ Jack Khoury,'European Parliament condemns Israel's policy toward Bedouin population,' at Haaretz, 8 July 2013.:The European Parliament Calls for the protection of the Bedouin communities of the West Bank and in the Negev, and for Israeli authorities to respect their rights and condemns any violations (e.g., house demolitions, forced displacements, and public service limitations). It calls also, in this context, for the withdrawal of the Prawer Plan by the Israeli Government.
  83. ↑ "Minister: Israel Looking at Ways to Lower Bedouin Birthrate". Haaretz.com. Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  84. ↑ "To up Bedouin living standards, minister tackles birth rate". The Times of Israel. Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  85. ↑ "Bedouin Culture in Jordan". Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  86. 1 2 3 World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples - Jordan : Overview. Peoples, UNHCR report, 2007
  87. ↑ Daniel Noll. "Life Lessons We Learned from Jordan's Bedouins". Uncornered Market. Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  88. ↑ "Brenda's Jordan". Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  89. ↑ "Jordan profile - Leaders". BBC News. Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  90. ↑ "The People of Jordan". Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  91. ↑ "Map of the Bedouin tribes of Jordan". Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  92. ↑ Britannica, Jordan. Bedouin
  93. ↑ Ethan Bronner, Jordan Faces a Rising Tide of Unrest, but Few Expect a Revolt, The New York Times, February 4, 2011
  94. 1 2 The Arabic Language By Kees Versteegh
  95. ↑ "François Decret, Les invasions hilaliennes en Ifrîqiya - Clio - Voyage Culturel". www.clio.fr. Retrieved 2015-11-21.
  96. ↑ Kees Versteegh, Dialects of Arabic : Maghreb Dialects, TeachMideast.org
  97. ↑ Mélissa Barkat, « Les dialectes Maghrébins » (lien), dans: Détermination d'indices acoustiques robustes pour l'identification automatique des parlers arabes, Thèse, Université Lumière Lyon 2 (2000)
  98. ↑ The Arabic Language By Kees Versteegh
  99. 1 2 3 Tamim Elyan, Metropolitan Bedouins: Tarabin tribe living in Cairo between urbanization and Bedouin traditions, Daily News Egypt
  100. ↑ Dr. Yosef Ben-David (1999-07-01). "The Bedouin in Israel". Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
  101. ↑ Konstantin Abercron. "Sinai Beduines". Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  102. ↑ "Egypt Halts Sinai Anti-terror Campaign, Will Open Talks With Bedouin". Haaretz.com. Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  103. 1 2 "The Arabic Language". Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  104. 1 2 "The Arabic Language". Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  105. ↑ The site of Chaamba Banu Sulaym http://www.chaamba.net/

Further reading

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Bedouins.
Wikisource has the text of The New Student's Reference Work article Bedouins.
This article is issued from Wikipedia - version of the Wednesday, May 04, 2016. The text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share Alike but additional terms may apply for the media files.