Chemosynthesis

Venenivibrio stagnispumantis gains energy by oxidizing hydrogen gas.

In biochemistry, chemosynthesis is the biological conversion of one or more carbon molecules (usually carbon dioxide or methane) and nutrients into organic matter using the oxidation of inorganic (e.g. hydrogen gas, hydrogen sulfide) or methane as a source of energy, rather than sunlight, as in photosynthesis. Chemoautotrophs, organisms that obtain carbon through chemosynthesis, are phylogenetically diverse, but groups that include conspicuous or biogeochemically-important taxa include the sulfur-oxidizing gamma and epsilon proteobacteria, the aquificaeles, the methanogenic archaea and the neutrophilic iron-oxidizing bacteria.

Many microorganisms in dark regions of the oceans also use chemosynthesis to produce biomass from single carbon molecules. Two categories can be distinguished. In the rare sites at which hydrogen molecules (H₂) are available, the energy available from the reaction between CO₂ and H₂ (leading to production of methane, CH₄) can be large enough to drive the production of biomass. Alternatively, in most oceanic environments, energy for chemosynthesis derives from reactions in which substances such as hydrogen sulfide or ammonia are oxidized. This may occur with or without the presence of oxygen.

Many chemosynthetic microorganisms are consumed by other organisms in the ocean, and symbiotic associations between chemosynthesizers and respiring heterotrophs are quite common. Large populations of animals can be supported by chemosynthetic secondary production at hydrothermal vents, methane clathrates, cold seeps, whale falls, and isolated cave water.

It has been hypothesized that chemosynthesis may support life below the surface of Mars, Jupiter's moon Europa, and other planets.^[1]

Process

Giant tube worms use bacteria in their trophosome to fix carbon dioxide (using hydrogen sulfide as an energy source) and produce sugars and amino acids.^[2] Some reactions produce sulfur:

hydrogen sulfide chemosynthesis:^[3]

12H₂S + 6CO₂ → C₆H₁₂O₆ (=carbohydrate) + 6H₂O + 12S

instead of releasing oxygen gas as in photosynthesis, the process produces solid globules of sulfur. In bacteria capable of chemosynthesis, such as purple sulfur bacteria, yellow globules of sulfur are present and visible in the cytoplasm.

Discovery

Giant tube worms (Riftia pachyptila) have an organ containing chemosynthetic bacteria instead of a gut.

In 1890, Sergei Nikolaevich Vinogradskii (or Winogradsky) proposed a novel type of life process called "anorgoxydant". His discovery suggested that some microbes could live solely on inorganic matter and emerged during his physiological research in the 1880s in Strassburg and Zurich on sulfur, iron, and nitrogen bacteria.

In 1897, Wilhelm Pfeffer coined the term "chemosynthesis" for the energy production by oxidation of inorganic substances, in association with autotrophy - what would be named today as chemolithoautotrophy. Later, the term would include also the chemoorganoautotrophy, as defined in this article.

The term "chemotrophy", less restrictive, would be introduced in the 1940s by André Lwoff for the production of energy by the oxidation of electron donors, organic or not, associated with auto- or heterotrophy.^[4][5]

Hydrothermal vents

The suggestion of Vinogradskii was confirmed nearly 90 years later, when hydrothermal ocean vents were predicted to exist in the 1970s. The hot springs and strange creatures were discovered by Alvin, the world's first deep-sea submersible, in 1977 at the Galapagos Rift. At about the same time, Harvard graduate student Colleen Cavanaugh proposed chemosynthetic bacteria that oxidize sulfides or elemental sulfur as a mechanism by which tube worms could survive near hydrothermal vents. Cavanaugh later managed to confirm that this was indeed the method by which the worms could thrive, and is generally credited with the discovery of chemosynthesis.

A 2004 television series hosted by Bill Nye named chemosynthesis as one of the 100 greatest scientific discoveries of all time.^[6][7]

Oceanic crust

In 2013, researchers reported their discovery of bacteria living in the rock of the oceanic crust below the thick layers of sediment, and apart from the hydrothermal vents that form along the edges of the tectonic plates. Preliminary findings are that these bacteria subsist on the hydrogen produced by chemical reduction of olivine by seawater circulating in the small veins that permeate the basalt that comprises oceanic crust. The bacteria synthesize methane by combining hydrogen and carbon dioxide.^[8]

Use of term in molecular nanotechnology

The term chemosynthesis is also used in molecular nanotechnology broadly to refer to any chemical synthesis where reactions occur due to random thermal motion, a class which encompasses almost all of modern synthetic chemistry. The human-authored processes of chemical engineering are accordingly represented as biomimicry of the natural phenomena above, and the entire class of non-photosynthetic chains by which complex molecules are constructed is described as chemo-.

This form of engineering is then contrasted with mechanosynthesis, a hypothetical process where individual molecules are mechanically manipulated to control reactions to human specification. Since photosynthesis and other natural processes create extremely complex molecules to the specifications contained in RNA and stored long-term in DNA form, advocates of molecular engineering claim that an artificial process can likewise exploit a chain of long-term storage, short-term storage, enzyme-like copying mechanisms similar to those in the cell, and ultimately produce complex molecules which need not be proteins. For instance, sheet diamond or carbon nanotubes could be produced by a chain of non-biological reactions that have been designed using the basic model of biology.

Use of the term chemosynthesis reinforces the view that this is feasible by pointing out that several alternate means of creating complex proteins, mineral shells of mollusks and crustaceans, etc., evolved naturally, not all of them dependent on photosynthesis and a food chain from the sun via chlorophyll. Since more than one such pathway exists to creating complex molecules, even extremely specific ones such as proteins edible to fish, the likelihood of humans being able to design an entirely new one is considered (by these advocates) to be near certainty in the long run, and possible within a generation.

See also

• Primary nutritional groups
• Autotroph
• Heterotroph
• Photosynthesis
• Movile Cave

References

1. Julian Chela-Flores (2000): "Terrestrial microbes as candidates for survival on Mars and Europa", in: Seckbach, Joseph (ed.) Journey to Diverse Microbial Worlds: Adaptation to Exotic Environments, Springer, pp. 387–398. ISBN 0-7923-6020-6
2. Biotechnology for Environmental Management and Resource Recovery. Springer. 2013. p. 179. ISBN 9788132208761.
3. Campbell N.A. e.a. (2008) Biology 8. ed. Pearson International Edition, San Francisco. ISBN 978-0-321-53616-7
4. Kelly, D. P., & Wood, A. P. (2006). The chemolithotrophic prokaryotes. In: The prokaryotes (pp. 441-456). Springer New York, .
5. Schlegel, H.G. (1975). Mechanisms of chemo-autotrophy. In: Marine ecology, Vol. 2, Part I (O. Kinne, ed.), pp. 9-60, .
6. "100 Greatest Discoveries (2004-2005)" IMDb.
7. "Greatest Discoveries." Science. Watch the "Greatest Discoveries in Evolution" online.
8. "Life deep within oceanic crust sustained by energy from interior of Earth", ScienceDaily, retrieved March 16, 2013.

External links

• Chemosynthetic Communities in the Gulf of Mexico