Field Museum of Natural History

"FMNH" redirects here. For the Florida Museum of Natural History, see FLMNH.
The Field Museum
Location in Chicago
Established 1893
Location 1400 S. Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, Illinois, United States
Coordinates 41°51′58″N 87°37′01″W / 41.866110°N 87.616940°W / 41.866110; -87.616940
Website

www.fieldmuseum.org

Field Museum of Natural History
Built 1921
Architect William Peirce Anderson of Graham, Anderson, Probst & White[1]
Architectural style Classical Revival
NRHP Reference # 75000647[2]
Added to NRHP September 5, 1975

The Field Museum of Natural History, also known as The Field Museum, is a natural history museum in Chicago, and is one of the largest such museums in the world.[3] The museum maintains its status as a premier natural history museum through the size and quality of its educational and scientific programs,[4][5] as well as due to its extensive scientific specimen and artifact collections.[6] The diverse, high quality permanent exhibitions,[7] which attract up to 2 million visitors annually, range from the earliest fossils to past and current cultures from around the world to interactive programming demonstrating today's urgent conservation needs.[8][9]

Additionally, the Field Museum maintains a temporary exhibition program of traveling shows as well as in-house produced topical exhibitions.[10] The professional staff maintains collections of over 24 million specimens and objects that provide the basis for the museum’s scientific research programs.[3][6][11] These collections include the full range of existing biodiversity, gems, meteorites, fossils, as well as rich anthropological collections and cultural artifacts from around the globe.[6][12][13][14] The Field Museum Library, which contains over 275,000 books, journals, and photo archives focused on biological systematics, evolutionary biology, geology, archaeology, ethnology and material culture, supports the Field Museum’s academic research faculty and exhibit development.[15]

The Field Museum academic faculty and scientific staff engage in field expeditions, in biodiversity and cultural research on all continents, in local and foreign student training, in stewardship of the rich specimen and artifact collections, and work in close collaboration with public programming exhibitions and education initiatives.[11][16][17][18]

History

Stanley Field, Field Museum President, 1906

The Field Museum and its collections originated from the 1893 World’s Columbian Exposition and the artifacts displayed at the fair. In order to house the exhibits and collections assembled for the 1893 Chicago World’s Fair for future generations, Edward Ayer convinced the merchant Marshall Field to fund the establishment of a museum.[19] Originally titled the Columbian Museum of Chicago in honor of its origins, the Field Museum was incorporated by the State of Illinois on September 16, 1893, for the purpose of the "accumulation and dissemination of knowledge, and the preservation and exhibition of artifacts illustrating art, archaeology, science and history."[20] The Columbian Museum of Chicago occupied the only building remaining from the World's Columbian Exposition, the Palace of Fine Arts, which now houses the Museum of Science and Industry.[9]

In 1905, the Museum's name was changed to Field Museum of Natural History to honor the Museum's first major benefactor, Marshall Field, and to better reflect its focus on the natural sciences.[21] During the period from 1943[22][23] to 1966,[24] the museum was known as the Chicago Natural History Museum. In 1921 the Museum moved from its original location in Jackson Park to its present site on Chicago Park District property near downtown.[25] By the late 1930s the Field Museum of Natural History emerged as one of the three premier museums in the United States, the other two being the American Museum of Natural History (AMNH, New York) and the National Museum of Natural History (Smithsonian Institution, Washington DC).[4]

The Field Museum maintains its high reputation through continuous growth, expanding the scope of collections, and extensive scientific research output, in addition to the institution’s award-winning exhibitions, associated outreach publications, and programs.[5][11][16][26] Today, the Field Museum is part of Chicago’s lakefront Museum Campus that includes the John G. Shedd Aquarium and the Adler Planetarium.[8]

The museum was allegedly defrauded of $900,000 by an employee over a seven-year period to 2014.[27]

Main Hall
Triceratops skeleton and skull

Permanent exhibitions

Many of the original exhibitions at the museum were from the World's Columbian Exposition of 1893.[28] Today the museum has permanent exhibitions that include:

Other exhibitions include sections on Tibet and China, where visitors can view traditional clothing. There is also an exhibit on life in Africa, where visitors can learn about the many different cultures on the continent and an exhibit where visitors may "visit" several Pacific Islands. The museum houses an authentic 19th century Māori Meeting House, Ruatepupuke II,[29] from Tokomaru Bay, New Zealand. There are also a few vintage Mold-A-Rama machines that create injection-molded plastic dinosaurs collected by Chicago children.

Sue the Tyrannosaurus rex

Main article: Sue (dinosaur)
Sue, the largest and most complete (80%) Tyrannosaurus rex skeleton currently known.

On May 17, 2000, the Field Museum unveiled Sue, the most complete and best-preserved Tyrannosaurus rex fossil yet discovered. Sue is 42 feet (13 m) long, stands 13 feet (4 m) high at the hips and is 67 million years old. The fossil was named after the person who discovered it, Sue Hendrickson, and is commonly referred to as female, though the fossil's actual sex is unknown.[30] The original skull, located elsewhere in the museum, was not mounted to the body due to the difficulties in examining the specimen 13 feet off the ground, and for nominal aesthetic reasons (the replica doesn't require a steel support under the mandible). An examination of the bones revealed that Sue died at age 28, a record for the fossilized remains of a T. rex.

Scientific collections

Professionally managed and maintained specimen and artifact collections, such as those at the Field Museum of Natural History, are a major research resource for the national and international scientific community, supporting extensive research that tracks environmental changes, benefits homeland security, public health and safety, and serves taxonomy and systematics research.[31] Many of Field Museum’s collections rank among the top ten collections in the world, e.g., the bird skin collection ranks fourth world-wide;[32][33] the mollusk collection is among the five largest in North America;[34] the fish collection is ranked among the largest in the world.[35] The scientific collections of the Field Museum originate from the specimens and artifacts assembled between 1891 to 1893 for the World Columbian Exposition.[11][20][36][37][38] Already at its founding, the Field Museum had a large anthropological collection.[39] A large number of the early natural history specimens were purchased from Ward’s Natural History Establishment[40] in Rochester, New York. An extensive acquisition program, including large expeditions conducted by the museum’s curatorial staff resulted in substantial collection growth.[9][11][41] During the first 50 years of the museum’s existence, over 440 Field Museum expeditions acquired specimens from all parts of the world.[42] In addition, material was added through purchase, such as the Strecker butterfly collection[43] in 1908 for example. Extensive specimen material and artifacts were given to the museum by collectors and donors, such as the Boone collection of over 3,500 East Asian artifacts, consisting of books, prints and various objects. In addition, “orphaned collections” were and are taken in from other institutions such as universities that change their academic programs away from collections-based research. For example, already beginning in 1907, Field Museum accepted substantial botanical specimen collections from universities such as University of Chicago, Northwestern University and University of Illinois at Chicago, into its herbarium. These specimens are maintained and continuously available for researchers worldwide.[11] Targeted collecting in the US and abroad for research programs of the curatorial and collection staff continuously add high quality specimen material and artifacts; e.g., Dr. Robert Inger’s collection of frogs from Borneo as part of his research into the ecology and biodiversity of the Indonesian fauna.[13][44][45] Collecting of specimens and acquisition of artifacts is nowadays subject to clearly spelled-out policies and standards, with the goal to acquire only materials and specimens for which the provenance can be established unambiguously. All collecting of biological specimens is subject to proper collecting and export permits; frequently, specimens are returned to their country of origin after study. Field Museum stands among the leading institutions developing such ethics standards and policies; Field Museum was an early adopter of voluntary repatriation practices of ethnological and archaeological artifacts.[9][39]

Collection care and management

Field Museum collections are professionally managed[46] by collection managers and conservators, who are highly skilled in preparation and preservation techniques. In fact, numerous maintenance and collection management tools were and are being advanced at Field Museum. For example, Carl Akeley’s development of taxidermy excellence produced the first natural-looking mammal and bird specimens for exhibition as well as for study.[47] Field Museum curators developed standards and best practices for the care of collections.[48] Conservators at the Field Museum have made notable contributions to the preservation of artifacts including the use of pheromone trapping for control of webbing clothes moths.[49] In a modern collections-bearing institution, the vast majority of the scientific specimens and artifact are stored in specially designed collection cabinets, placed in containers made of archival materials, with labels printed on acid-free paper, and specimens and artifact are stored away from natural light to avoid fading. Preservation fluids are continuously monitored and in many collections humidity and temperature are controlled to ensure the long-term preservation of the specimens and artifacts. Field Museum was an early adopter of positive-pressure based approaches to control of environment in display cases,[50] using control modules for humidity control in several galleries where room-level humidification was not practical.[51][52] The museum has also adopted a low-energy approach to maintain low humidity to prevent corrosion in archaeological metals using ultra-well-sealed barrier film micro-environments.[53] Other notable contributions include methods for dyeing Japanese papers to color match restorations in organic substrates,[54] the removal of display mounts from historic objects,[55] testing of collections for residual heavy metal pesticides,[56][57] presence of early plastics in collections,[58] the effect of sulfurous products in display cases,[59] and the use of light tubes in display cases.[60] Concordant with research developments, new collection types, such as frozen tissue collections, requiring new collecting and preservation techniques are added to the existing holdings.[61][62]

Collection records

Collection management requires meticulous record keeping. Handwritten ledgers captured specimen and artifact data in the past. Field Museum was an early adopter of computerization of collection data beginning in the late 1970.[11][63] Field Museum contributes its digitized collection data to a variety of online groups and platforms, such as: HerpNet, VertNet and Antweb,[64] Global Biodiversity Information Facility or GBif,[65] and others. All Field Museum collection databases are unified and currently maintained in KE EMu software system. The research value of digitized specimen data and georeferenced locality data is widely acknowledged,[66] enabling analyses of distribution shifts due to climate changes, land use changes and others.[67]

Collection use

During the World's Columbian Exposition, all acquired specimens and objects were on display;[36] the purpose of the World’s Fair was exhibition of these materials. For example, right after opening of the Columbian Museum of Chicago the mollusk collection occupied one entire exhibit hall, displaying 3,000 species of mollusks on about 1,260 square feet. By 1910, 20,000 shell specimens were on display, with an additional 15,000 ‘in storage’.[68] In today’s museum, only a small fraction of the specimens and artifacts are on display in the public exhibitions. The vast majority of the scientific specimens and artifact are in almost constant use by a wide range of stakeholders, both in the museum and around the world. In addition to building the collections and overseeing the collection management, Field Museum curatorial faculty and their graduate students and postdoctoral trainees are using the collections extensively in their research and in training (e.g., in formal high school and undergraduate training programs). Furthermore, research specimens are requested by researchers from all over the world and borrowed specimens are shipped routinely around the globe. The online availability of collection data allows to search for particular specimens in the museum’s holdings from anywhere in the world. For example, in 2012 Field Museum’s Zoology collection processed 419 specimen loans, shipping over 42,000 specimens to researchers, see Annual Report[69] 2012. All Field Museum collections are governed by well-defined (and published)[70] loan policies to ensure that the specimens remain in good condition and can be used for research at any time. For example, Field Museum’s loan policy allows for the shipment of type specimens from many of its specimen collections. The collection specimens are an important cornerstone of research infrastructure: each specimen can be re-examined and frequently, with the advancement of analytic techniques, new data can be gleaned from specimens[71] that may have been collected more than 150 years ago.

Library

The library at the Field Museum was organized in 1893 to meet the research needs of the museum's scientific staff, visiting researchers, students, and members of the general public interested in natural history and are an essential resource for the Museum’s research, exhibition development and educational programs. The 275,000 volumes of the Main Research Collections concentrate on biological systematics, environmental and evolutionary biology, anthropology, botany, geology, archaeology, museology and related subjects. Some highlights of the Field Museum Library include a number of collections.

Ayer collection

The private, chiefly ornithological, collection of Edward E. Ayer, the first president of the museum. The collection contains virtually all the important works in history of ornithology and is especially rich in color-illustrated works.

Laufer Collection

The working collection of Dr. Berthold Laufer, America’s first sinologist and Curator of Anthropology until his death in 1934. The Library houses approximately 7,000 volumes in Chinese, Japanese, Tibetan, and numerous Western languages on anthropology, archaeology, religion, science, and travel.

Karl P. Schmidt Memorial Herpetological Library

Named for Karl Patterson Schmidt. A research library that contains over 2,000 herpetological books and an extensive reprint collection.[75]

Research and education

As an educational institution, the Field Museum offers multiple opportunities for both informal and more structured public learning. Exhibitions remain the primary means of informal education, but throughout its history the Museum has supplemented this approach with innovative educational programs. The Harris Loan Program,[76] for example, begun in 1912, provides educational outreach to children, offering artifacts, specimens, audiovisual materials, and activity kits to Chicago area schools. The Department of Education, begun in 1922, offers a challenging program of classes, lectures, field trips, museum overnights and special events for families, adults and children. Professional symposia and lectures, such as the annual A. Watson Armour III Spring Symposium, present the latest scientific results to the international scientific community as well as the public at large.

The Museum's curatorial and scientific staff in the departments of Anthropology,[77] Botany,[78] Geology,[79] and Zoology[80] conducts basic research in the fields of systematic biology and anthropology, and also has responsibility for collections management, and collaboration in public programs with the Departments of Education and Exhibits. Since its founding the Field Museum has been an international leader in evolutionary biology and paleontology, and archaeology and ethnography, and has long maintained close links, including joint teaching, students, seminars, with local universities—particularly the University of Chicago and the University of Illinois at Chicago.

The Field has recently adopted production of the popular YouTube channel The Brain Scoop, hiring its host Emily Graslie full-time as 'Chief Curiosity Correspondent'.

Fieldiana

The museum publishes four peer-reviewed monograph series issued under the collective title Fieldiana, devoted to anthropology, botany, geology and zoology.[81] Monographs in these series are accessible via the Internet Archive.[82]

In popular media

In television

The museum was used in a 1986 McDonald's commercial entitled "Field Trip".

In film

Both exterior and interior views of the Field Museum of Natural History were used in the horror film Damien: Omen II (1978), the sequel to The Omen (1976). This included shots of the main hall, upper galleries and use of the front exterior for the final scene.

The Field Museum served as the setting in the horror film The Relic (1997). Many parts of the film, though, were created with computer graphics or with sets that bear only a passing similarity to the actual museum.

It was used in several scenes for the Kevin Bacon movie She's Having a Baby (1988).

A chase scene in the Keanu Reeves thriller Chain Reaction (1996) combined the Field Museum and the Museum of Science and Industry, located several miles to the south, into one museum.

In print

A portion of Dead Beat (2005), the seventh novel of The Dresden Files series, takes place at the museum. In one of the best-remembered moments of the series, Harry Dresden revives Sue the T-rex as a zombie and rides her into battle against a powerful necromancer.

Gallery

See also

References

  1. ↑ "Architecture". The Field Museum. Retrieved September 11, 2015.
  2. ↑ Staff (2007-01-23). "National Register Information System". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service.
  3. 1 2 Bardoe, Cheryl (2011). The Field Museum. Beckon Books.
  4. 1 2 Coleman, LV (1939). The Museums in America: A critical study, Volumes 1-3. The American Association of Museums.
  5. 1 2 Williams, PM (1973). Museums of Natural History and the people who work in them. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
  6. 1 2 3 Boyer, BH (1993). The Natural History of the Field Museum: Exploring the Earth and its People. Chicago: Field Museum.
  7. ↑ Metzler, S (2007). Theatres of Nature Dioramas at the Field Museum. Chicago: Field Museum of Natural History.
  8. 1 2 "Museums in the Park: Attendance Statistics".
  9. 1 2 3 4 Alexander, EP (1979). Museums in Motion: An Introduction to the History and Functions of Museums. Nashville: American Association for State and Local History.
  10. ↑ "Field Museum Traveling Exhibitions".
  11. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Nitecki, M (1980). "Field Museum of Natural History". ASC Newsletter 8 (5): 61–70.
  12. ↑ Shopland, JM and L Breslauer (1998). The Anthropology Collections of the Field Museum. Chicago: The Field Museum.
  13. 1 2 Resetar, A and HK Voris (1997). Herpetology at the Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago: the First Hundred Years. Lawrence, Kansas: American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists.
  14. ↑ Lowther, P 1995. Ornithology at the Field Museum, pp145-161. In: Davis, W.E. Jr. and J.A. Jackson (eds). Contributions to the History of North American Ornithology. Memoirs of the Nuttall Ornithological Club, 12, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
  15. ↑ Williams, Benjamin W.; Fawcett, W. Peyton (1985). "Field Museum of Natural History Library". Science and Technology Libraries 6 (1/2): 27–34. doi:10.1300/J122v06n01_04.
  16. 1 2 Nash, S. E.; GM Feinman (2003). Curators, collections, and contexts: Anthropology at the Field Museum, 1893–2002. Chicago: Field Museum of Natural History.
  17. ↑ "CEB, Committee on Evolutionary Biology, University of Chicago, Faculty (Field Museum)".
  18. ↑ "University of Illinois at Chicago, Department of Anthropology, Associated Field Museum Faculty".
  19. ↑ Lockwood, F.C. (1929). The life of Edward E. Ayer. Chicago, IL: AC McClurg.
  20. 1 2 Farrington, OC (1930). "A Brief History of Field Museum from 1893 to 1930". Field Museum News 1 (1): 1, 3.
  21. ↑ Field Museum of Natural History (1907). "Annual Report of the Director to the Board of Trustees for the Year 1906" 3 (1): 8–9.
  22. ↑ Field, S. (1943). Address of Mr. Stanley Field, president of the Museum. Chicago: Field Museum Press. pp. 3–5.
  23. ↑ Field, S. (1943). "Fifty years of progress". Field Museum News 14 (9/10): 3–10.
  24. ↑ Webber, EL (1966). "Field Museum Again: name change honors Field Family". Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin 37 (3): 2–3.
  25. ↑ "Field Museum Changes Locations".
  26. ↑ Ward, L (1998). An explorer's guide to the Field Museum. Chicago: The Field Museum.
  27. ↑ http://www.chicagotribune.com/entertainment/museums/ct-field-museum-employee-theft-20151211-story.html
  28. ↑ "Port of Aden from the Sea". World Digital Library. December 1894. Retrieved 2013-06-11.
  29. ↑ "A Marae Abroad" (PDF). Gisbourne Herald.
  30. ↑ "Sue at The Field Museum: The Largest, Most Complete, Best Preserved T. Rex". The Field Museum. 2007. Archived from the original on May 15, 2007. Retrieved June 28, 2015.
  31. ↑ Shaffer, HB; RN Fisher; C Davidson (1998). "The role of natural history collections in documenting species declines". Trends in Ecology and Evolution 13 (1): 27–30. doi:10.1016/S0169-5347(97)01177-4. PMID 21238186.
  32. ↑ Banks, RC; Clench, MH; Barlow JC (1973). "Bird collections in the United States and Canada". Auk 90: 136–170.
  33. ↑ Lowther1995, P (1995). "Ornithology at the Field Museum. In: Davis, W.E. Jr. and J.A. Jackson (eds). Contributions to the History of North American Ornithology". Memoirs of the Nuttall Ornithological Club 12: 145–161.
  34. ↑ Sturm, CF, TA Pearce, A Valdés (2006). The Mollusks. A guide to their study, collection and preservation. Boca Raton, Florida: American Malacological Society, Universal Publishers. p. 445.
  35. ↑ Poss, SG; BB Collette (1995). "Second survey of fish collections in the United States and Canada". Copeia 1995 (1): 48–70. doi:10.2307/1446799.
  36. 1 2 Meyer, AB (1905). Studies of the museums and kindred institutions of New York City, Albany, Buffalo, and Chicago, with notes on some European institutions [published in English, translated from German, in-depth comparative review of Field Museum exhibits, collections and operations around 1899- 1900]. Smithsonian Institution, Government Printing office, No 138. pp. 311–608.
  37. ↑ Collier, D (1969). "Chicago Comes of Age: The World's Columbian Exposition and the Birth of Field Museum". Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin 40 (5): 2–7.
  38. ↑ Anonymous (1894). "An historical and descriptive account of the Field Columbian Museum". Field Columbian Museum, Chicago, Pub. 1 12 (1): 1–91.
  39. 1 2 Conn, S (2010). Do museums still need objects?. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 262 pp. ISBN 978-0-8122-4190-7.
  40. ↑ "Ward's Natural Science Establishment Papers". University of Rochester Libraries. 1876–1988. Retrieved June 28, 2015.
  41. ↑ Akeley, C (1920). In Brightest Africa. Garden City Publishers.
  42. ↑ Field, S (1943). Address of Mr. Stanley Field, president of the Museum. Chicago: in: Three Addresses, Field Museum Press. pp. 3–5.
  43. ↑ "Butterfly and Moth Collection: Herman Strecker Collection". The Field Museum. 2007. Retrieved June 28, 2015.
  44. ↑ Emerson, SB (1989). "Introduction, in: Emerson, S.B. (ed.) Contributions in celebration of the distinguished scholarship of Robert F. Inger on the occasion of his sixty-fifth birthday". Fieldiana, Zoology, Festschrift: v–vii.
  45. ↑ Kong, CP (1989). "My field trip to Ulu Kinabatangnan, North Borneo, with Robert Inger, in: Emerson, S.B. (ed.) Contributions in celebration of the distinguished scholarship of Robert F. Inger on the occasion of his sixty-fifth birthday". Fieldiana, Zoology, Festschrift: vii–viii.
  46. ↑ "Conserving Our Collections". The Field Museum.
  47. ↑ Bodry-Sanders, P (1990). Carl Akeley: Africa’s collector, Africa’s savior. New York: Paragon House. pp. 289 pp.
  48. ↑ Solem, A (1980). "Standards for malacological collections". Curator 24 (1): 19–28. doi:10.1111/j.2151-6952.1981.tb00568.x.
  49. ↑ Norton, RE (1996). A case history of managing outbreaks of Webbing Clothes Moth (Tineola bisselliella). Paris:ICOM-CC: Preprints of the ICOM C-C 11th Triennial Meeting. pp. 61–67.
  50. ↑ Michalski, S (1985). "A relative humidity control module". Museum (UNESCO) 146: 85–88.
  51. ↑ Sease, C Anderson, C (1994). Preventive conservation at the Field Museum" Preventive conservation: practice, theory and research. Preprints of the contributions to the Ottawa Congress, 12-16 September 1994. London: eds Roy, Ashok; Smith, Perry . International Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works. pp. 44–47.
  52. ↑ Sease, C (1990). "A new means of controlling relative humidity in exhibit cases". Collection forum 6 (1): 12–20.
  53. ↑ Brown, JP (2010). "The Field Museum Archaeological Metals Project: Distributed, In Situ Micro-Environments for the Preservation of Unstable Archaeological Metals Using Escal® Barrier Film". Object Speciality Group Postprints 17: 133–146.
  54. ↑ Norton, RE (2003). "Dyeing Japanese paper with Fibre Reactive Dyes". The Paper Conservator 26: 37–47. doi:10.1080/03094227.2002.9638621.
  55. ↑ Minderop, J; C Podsiki; RE Norton (2007). "Deinstallation and cleaning of the 1950s galleries of ethnographical and archaeological material from the Americas at the Field Museum, Chicago". Objects Specialty Group Postprints 11: 103–125.
  56. ↑ Klaus, M; J Plitnikas; RE Norton; T Almazan; S Coleman, M (2005). Poster abstract: Preliminary results from a survey for residual arsenic on the North American collections at The Field Museum, Chicago. Paris: ICOM: Preprints of the 14th Triennial Meeting The Hague. p. 127.
  57. ↑ Podsiki, C; I Koch; E Lee; C Ollsen; K Reimer, C (2002). Pesticide contaminated artifacts and the conservator. In Twenty-eighth annual ANAGPIC student conference: student papers: April 18-20, 2002. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Art Museums. Straus Center for Conservation and Technical Studies. pp. 111–123.
  58. ↑ Sease, C; A Berry, C (1996). Expect the unexpected: early uses of plastic in ethnographic collections. Paris:ICOM-CC: In Preprints of the ICOM C-C 11th Triennial Meeting. pp. 639–642.
  59. ↑ Sease, C; L Selwyn; S. Zubiate; D Bowers; D Atkins (1997). "Problems with coated silver: whisker formation and possible filiform corrosion". Studies in Conservation 42: 1–10. doi:10.1179/sic.1997.42.1.1.
  60. ↑ Sease, C (1993). "Light piping: a new lighting system for museum cases". Journal of the American Institute for Conservation 32: 279–290. doi:10.1179/019713693806124884.
  61. ↑ Bates, JM; RCK Bowie; DE Willard; G Voelker; C Kahindo (2004). "A need for continued collecting of avian voucher specimens in Africa: Why blood is not enough". Ostrich 75: 187–191. doi:10.2989/00306520409485442.
  62. ↑ Bates; S J Hackett; RM Zink, JM (1993). Tecnicas y materiales para la preservación de tejidos congelados. Washington, DC: in Curación moderna de colecciones ornitolólogicas (P. Escalante-Pliego, ed.) American Ornithologists' Union. pp. 75–78.
  63. ↑ National Science Foundation. "The Assessment of the Needs of Free-Standing Museums for the Computerization of Collections Management and Related Research, BSR-9118843, award summary". Retrieved December 2013.
  64. ↑ "AntWeb". antweb.org.
  65. ↑ "Free and Open Access to Biodiversity Data - GBIF.org". gbif.org.
  66. ↑ "iDigBio Home". iDigBio.
  67. ↑ Suarez, AV; ND Tsutsui (2004). "The value of museum collections for research and society". BioScience 54: 66–74. doi:10.1641/0006-3568(2004)054[0066:tvomcf]2.0.co;2.
  68. ↑ Rea, PM (1910). "A directory of American Museums of Art, History and Science". Bulletin of the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences 10 (1): 3–360.
  69. ↑ "Collections and Research Annual Reports". The Field Museum.
  70. ↑ "Invertebrates". The Field Museum.
  71. ↑ "Research & Collections". The Field Museum.
  72. ↑ "World's Columbian Exposition of 1893". idaillinois.org.
  73. ↑ "Urban Landscapes of Illinois: Digitization of Original Glass Negatives". The Field Museum. 2008. Retrieved June 28, 2015.
  74. ↑ "Flickr: The Field Museum Library's Photostream". Flickr.
  75. ↑ "Division of Amphibians and Reptiles". The Field Museum. Retrieved 7 August 2012.
  76. ↑ "Harris Learning Collection". fieldmuseum.org.
  77. ↑ "Culture". The Field Museum.
  78. ↑ "Research & Collections: Botany". The Field Museum. 2007. Archived from the original on April 26, 2009. Retrieved June 28, 2015.
  79. ↑ "Fossils & Meteorites". The Field Museum.
  80. ↑ "Animals". The Field Museum.
  81. ↑ "Fieldiana". Field Museum. Retrieved 2008-01-26.
  82. ↑ "Internet Archive".

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