Great Expectations

This article is about the Charles Dickens novel. For other uses, see Great Expectations (disambiguation).
Great Expectations

Title page of Vol. 1 of first edition, July 1861
Author Charles Dickens
Country United Kingdom
Language English
Genre Novel
Published Serialized 1860-1; book form 1861
Publisher Chapman & Hall
Media type Print
Pages 544 (first edition 1861)

Great Expectations is the thirteenth novel by Charles Dickens and his penultimate completed novel; a bildungsroman which depicts the personal growth and personal development of an orphan nicknamed Pip. It is Dickens's second novel, after David Copperfield, to be fully narrated in the first person.[N 1] The novel was first published as a serial in Dickens's weekly periodical All the Year Round, from 1 December 1860 to August 1861.[1] In October 1861, Chapman and Hall published the novel in three volumes.

The novel is set in Kent and London in the early to mid-1800s,[2] and contains some of Dickens' most memorable scenes, including the opening, in a graveyard, where the young Pip is accosted by the escaped convict, Abel Magwitch.[3] Great Expectations is full of extreme imagery – poverty; prison ships and chains, and fights to the death[3] – and has a colourful cast of characters who have entered popular culture. These include the eccentric Miss Havisham, the beautiful but cold Estella, and Joe, the unsophisticated and kind blacksmith. Dickens's themes include wealth and poverty, love and rejection, and the eventual triumph of good over evil.[3] Great Expectations is popular both with readers and literary critics, and has been translated into many languages, and adapted numerous times into various media.

Upon its release, the novel received near universal acclaim,[4] although Thomas Carlyle spoke disparagingly of "all that Pip's nonsense".[5] Later, George Bernard Shaw praised the novel, as "All of one piece and consistently truthfull."[6] During the serial publication, Dickens was pleased with public response to Great Expectations and its sales;[7] when the plot first formed in his mind, he called it "a very fine, new and grotesque idea".[8]

Plot summary

Locations in the novel

On Christmas Eve, around 1812,[9] Pip, an orphan who is about seven years old, encounters an escaped convict in the village churchyard while visiting the graves of his mother, father and siblings. The convict scares Pip into stealing food and a file to grind away his shackles, from the home he shares with his abusive older sister and her kind husband Joe Gargery, a blacksmith. The next day, soldiers recapture the convict while he is engaged in a fight with another escaped convict; the two are returned to the prison ships.

Miss Havisham, a wealthy spinster who wears an old wedding dress and lives in the dilapidated Satis House, asks Pip's Uncle Pumblechook (who is Joe's uncle) to find a boy to visit. Pip visits Miss Havisham and her adopted daughter Estella, falling in love with Estella on first sight, both quite young. Pip visits Miss Havisham regularly until it comes time for him to learn a trade; Joe accompanies Pip for the last visit when she gives the money for Pip to be bound as apprentice blacksmith. Pip settles into learning Joe's trade. When both are away from the house, Mrs. Joe is brutally attacked, leaving her unable to speak or do her work. Biddy arrives to help with her care and becomes 'a blessing to the household'.

Miss Havisham with Estella and Pip. Art by H. M. Brock
London locations

Four years into Pip's apprenticeship, Mr. Jaggers, a lawyer, approaches him in the village with the news that he has expectations from an anonymous benefactor, with immediate funds to train him in the gentlemanly arts. He will not know the benefactor's name until that person speaks up. Pip is to leave for London in the proper clothes. He assumes that Miss Havisham is his benefactor. He visits her to say good-bye.

Pip sets up house with Herbert Pocket at Barnard's Inn. Herbert tells Pip the circumstances of Miss Havisham's romantic disappointment, her jilting by her fiancé. Pip goes to Hammersmith, to be educated by Mr Matthew Pocket, Herbert's father. Jaggers disburses the money Pip needs to set himself up in his new life. Joe visits Pip at Barnard's Inn, where Pip is a bit ashamed of Joe. Joe relays the message from Miss Havisham that Estella will be at Satis House for a visit. Pip and Herbert exchange their romantic secrets - Pip adores Estella and Herbert is engaged to Clara.

Pip and Herbert build up debts. Mrs Joe dies and Pip returns to his village for the funeral. Pip's income is fixed at £500 per annum when he comes of age at twenty-one. Pip takes Estella to Satis House. She and Miss Havisham quarrel. At the Assembly Ball in Richmond Estella meets Bentley Drummle, a brute of a man. A week after he turns 23 years old, Pip learns that his benefactor is the convict from so long ago, Abel Magwitch, who had been transported to New South Wales after that escape. He became wealthy after gaining his freedom there. As long as he is out of England, Magwitch can live. But he returns to see Pip. Pip was his motivation for all his success in New South Wales. Pip is shocked, ceasing to take money from him. He and Herbert Pocket devise a plan to get Magwitch out of England, by boat. Magwitch shares his past history with Pip.

Pip tells Miss Havisham that he is as unhappy as she can ever have meant him to be. He asks her to finance Herbert Pocket. Estella tells Pip she will marry Bentley Drummle.

Miss Havisham tells Pip that Estella was brought to her by Jaggers aged two or three. Before Pip leaves the property, Miss Havisham accidentally sets her dress on fire. Pip saves her, injuring himself in the process. She eventually dies from her injuries, lamenting her manipulation of Estella and Pip. Jaggers tells Pip how he brought Estella to Miss Havisham from Molly. Pip figures out that Estella is the daughter of Molly and Magwitch.

Magwitch makes himself known to Pip

A few days before the escape, Joe's former journeyman Orlick seizes Pip, confessing past crimes as he means to kill Pip. Herbert Pocket and Startop save Pip and prepare for the escape. On the river, they are met by a police boat carrying Compeyson for identification of Magwitch. Compeyson was the other convict years earlier, and as well, the con artist who wooed and deserted Miss Havisham. Magwitch seizes Compeyson, and they fight in the river. Magwitch survives to be taken by police, seriously injured. Compeyson's body is found later.

Pip visits Magwitch in jail and tells him that his daughter Estella is alive. Magwitch responds by squeezing Pip's palm and dies soon after, sparing an execution. After Herbert goes to Cairo, Pip falls ill in his rooms. He is confronted with arrest for debt; he awakens to find Joe at his side. Joe nurses Pip back to health and pays off the debt. As Pip begins to walk about on his own, Joe slips away home. Pip returns to propose to Biddy, to find that she and Joe have just married. Pip asks Joe for forgiveness, and Joe forgives him. As Magwitch's fortune in money and land was seized by the court, Pip no longer has income. Pip promises to repay Joe. Herbert asks him to join his firm in Cairo; he shares lodgings with Herbert and Clara and works as a clerk, advancing over time.

Eleven years later, Pip visits the ruins of Satis House and meets Estella, widow to the abusive Bentley Drummle. She asks Pip to forgive her, assuring him that misfortune has opened her heart and that she now empathises with Pip. As Pip takes Estella's hand and leaves the ruins of Satis House, he sees "no shadow of another parting from her."

Characters

Pip and his family

Miss Havisham and her family

From Pip's youth

Mr. Jaggers and his circle

Mr. Wemmick and "The Aged P.", illustration by Sol Eytinge Jr.

Antagonists

Other characters

Development history

Charles Dickens, c. 1860

As Dickens began writing Great Expectations, he undertook a series of hugely popular and remunerative reading tours. His domestic life had, however, disintegrated in the late 1850s and he had separated from his wife, Catherine Dickens, and was having a secret affair with the much younger Ellen Ternan. The introduction of the 1984 Penguin English Library edition suggests that the reluctance with which Ellen Ternan became his mistress is reflected in the icy teasing of Estella in Great Expectations.[10]

Beginning

In his Book of Memoranda, begun in 1855, Dickens wrote names for possible characters: Magwitch, Provis, Clarriker, Compey, Pumblechook, Orlick, Gargery, Wopsle, Skiffins, some of which became familiar in Great Expectations. There is also a reference to a "knowing man", a possible sketch of Bentley Drummle.[11] Another evokes a house full of "Toadies and Humbugs", foreshadowing the visitors to Satis House in chapter 11.[11][12] Margaret Cardwell discovered the "premonition" of Great Expectations from a 25 September 1855 letter from Dickens to W. H. Wills, in which Dickens speaks of recycling an "odd idea" from the Christmas special "A House to Let" and "the pivot round which my next book shall revolve."[13][14] The "odd idea" concerns an individual who "retires to an old lonely house…resolved to shut out the world and hold no communion with it."[13]

In an 8 August 1860 letter to Earl Carlisle, Dickens reported his agitation whenever he prepared a new book.[11] A month later, in a letter to John Forster, Dickens announced that he just had a new idea.[15]

Publication in All the Year Round

Advertisement for Great Expectations in All the Year Round.

Dickens was pleased with the idea, calling it "such a very fine, new and grotesque idea" in a letter to Forster.[8] He planned to write "a little piece", a "grotesque tragi-comic conception", about a young hero who befriends an escaped convict, who then makes a fortune in Australia and anonymously bequeaths his property to the hero. In the end, the hero loses the money because it is forfeited to the Crown. In his biography of Dickens, Forster wrote that in the early idea "was the germ of Pip and Magwitch, which at first he intended to make the groundwork of a tale in the old twenty-number form."[16] Dickens presented the relationship between Pip and Magwitch pivotal to Great Expectations but without Miss Havisham, Estella, or other characters he later created.

As the idea and Dickens's ambition grew, he began writing. However, in September, the weekly All the Year Round saw its sales fall, and its flagship publication, A Day's Ride by Charles Lever, lost favour with the public. Dickens "called a council of war", and believed that to save the situation, "the one thing to be done was for [him] to strike in."[17] The "very fine, new and grotesque idea" became the magazine's new support: weeklies, five hundred pages, just over one year (1860–1861), thirty-six episodes, starting 1 December. The magazine continued to publish Lever's novel until its completion on 23 March 1861,[18] but it became secondary to Great Expectations. Immediately, sales resumed, and critics responded positively, as exemplified by The Times's praise: "Great Expectations is not, indeed, [Dickens's] best work, but it is to be ranked among his happiest."[19]

Dickens, whose health was not the best, felt "The planning from week to week was unimaginably difficult" but persevered.[18] He thought he had found "a good name", decided to use the first person "throughout", and thought the beginning was "excessively droll": "I have put a child and a good-natured foolish man, in relations that seem to me very funny."[20] Four weekly episodes were "ground off the wheel" in October 1860,[21] and apart from one reference to the "bondage" of his heavy task,[22] the months passed without the anguished cries that usually accompanied the writing of his novels.[18] He did not even use the Number Plans or Mems;[N 2] he only had a few notes on the characters' ages, the tide ranges for chapter 54, and the draft of an ending. In late December, Dickens wrote to Mary Boyle that "Great Expectations [is] a very great success and universally liked."[7]

Charles Dickens, Jr. (in 1874), possibly the model for Herbert Pocket

Dickens gave six readings from 14 March to 18 April 1861, and in May, Dickens took a few days' holiday in Dover. On the eve of his departure, he took some friends and family members for a trip by boat from Blackwall to Southend-on-Sea. Ostensibly for pleasure, the mini-cruise was actually a working session for Dickens to examine banks of the river in preparation for the chapter devoted to Magwitch's attempt to escape.[16] Dickens then revised Herbert Pocket's appearance, no doubt, asserts Margaret Cardwell, to look more like his son Charley.[23] On 11 June 1861, Dickens wrote to Macready that Great Expectations had been completed and on 15 June, asked the editor to prepare the novel for publication.[18]

Revised ending

Following comments by Edward Bulwer-Lytton that the ending was too sad, Dickens rewrote it. The ending set aside by Dickens has Pip, still single, briefly see Estella in London; after becoming Bentley Drummle's widow, she has remarried.[18][24] It appealed to Dickens due to its originality: "[the] winding up will be away from all such things as they conventionally go."[18][25] Dickens revised the ending for publication so that Pip meets Estella in the ruins of Satis House, she a widow and he single. His changes at the conclusion of the novel did not quite end either with the final weekly part and the first bound edition, because Dickens further changed the last sentence in the amended 1868 version from "I could see the shadow of no parting from her."[18] to "I saw no shadow of another parting from her".[26] As Pip uses litotes, "no shadow of another parting", it is ambiguous whether Pip and Estella marry or Pip remains single. Angus Calder, writing for an edition in the Penguin English Library, believed the less definite phrasing of the amended 1868 version perhaps hinted at a buried meaning: '...at this happy moment, I did not see the shadow of our subsequent parting looming over us.'[27]

In a letter to Forster, Dickens explained his decision to alter the draft ending: "You will be surprised to hear that I have changed the end of Great Expectations from and after Pip's return to Joe's ... Bulwer, who has been, as I think you know, extraordinarily taken with the book, strongly urged it upon me, after reading the proofs, and supported his views with such good reasons that I have resolved to make the change. I have put in as pretty a little piece of writing as I could, and I have no doubt the story will be more acceptable through the alteration."[28][29]

This discussion between Dickens, Bulwer-Lytton and Forster has provided the basis for much discussion on Dickens's underlying views for this famous novel. Earle Davis, in his 1963 study of Dickens, wrote that "it would be an inadequate moral point to deny Pip any reward after he had shown a growth of character," and that "Eleven years might change Estella too."[30] John Forster felt that the original ending was "more consistent" and "more natural"[31][32] but noted the new ending's popularity.[33] George Gissing called that revision "a strange thing, indeed, to befall Dickens" and felt that Great Expectations would have been perfect had Dickens not altered the ending in deference to Bulwer-Lytton.[N 3][34]

In contrast, John Hillis-Miller stated that Dickens's personality was so assertive that Bulwer-Lytton had little influence, and welcomed the revision: "The mists of infatuation have cleared away, [Estella and Pip] can be joined."[35] Earl Davis notes that G.B. Shaw published the novel in 1937 for The Limited Editions Club with the first ending and that The Rhinehart Edition of 1979 presents both endings.[33][36][37]

George Orwell wrote, "Psychologically the latter part of Great Expectations is about the best thing Dickens ever did," but, like John Forster and several early 20th century writers, including George Bernard Shaw, felt that the original ending was more consistent with the draft, as well as the natural working out of the tale.[38] Modern literary criticism is split over the matter.

Publication history

In periodicals

Dickens and Wills co-owned All the Year Round, one 75%, the other 25%. Since Dickens was his own publisher, he did not require a contract for his own works.[39] Although intended for weekly publication, Great Expectations was divided into nine monthly sections, with new pagination for each.[32] Harper's Weekly published the novel from 24 November 1860 to 5 August 1861 in the US and All the Year Round published it from 1 December 1860 to 3 August 1861 in the UK. Harper's paid £1,000 for publication rights. Dickens welcomed a contract with Tauchnitz 4 January 1861 for publication in English for the European continent.

Publications in Harper's Weekly were accompanied by forty illustrations by John McLenan;[40] however, this is the only Dickens work published in All the Year Round without illustrations.

Editions

Robert L. Patten identifies four American editions in 1861 and sees the proliferation of publications in Europe and across the Atlantic as "extraordinary testimony" to Great Expectations's popularity.[41] Chapman and Hall published the first edition in three volumes in 1861, five subsequent reprints between 6 July and 30 October, and a one-volume edition in 1862. The "bargain" edition was published in 1862, the Library Edition in 1864, and the Charles Dickens edition in 1868. To this list, Paul Schlicke adds "two meticulous scholarly editions", one Claredon Press published in 1993 with an introduction by Margaret Cardwell and another with an introduction by Edgar Rosenberg, published by Norton in 1999.[32] The novel was published with one ending, visible in the four on line editions listed in the External links at the end of this article. In some 20th century editions, the novel ends as originally published in 1867, and in an afterword, the ending Dickens did not publish, along with a brief story of how a friend persuaded him to a happier ending for Pip, is presented to the reader (for example, 1987 audio edition by Recorded Books[42]).

In 1862, Marcus Stone,[43] son of Dickens's old friend, the painter Frank Stone, was invited to create eight woodcuts for the Library Edition. According to Paul Schlicke, these illustrations are mediocre yet were included in the Charles Dickens edition, and Stone created illustrations for Dickens's subsequent novel, Our Mutual Friend.[32] Later, Henry Mathew Brock also illustrated Great Expectations and a 1935 edition of A Christmas Carol,[44] along with other artists, such as John McLenan,[45] F. A. Fraser,[46] and Harry Furniss.[47]

First edition publication schedule

Pip is ashamed of Joe at Satis House, by F. A. Fraser
Part Date Chapters
1–5 1, 8, 15, 22, 29 December 1860 (1–8)
6–9 5, 12, 19, 26 January 1861 (9–15)
10–12 2, 9, 23 February 1861 (16–21)
13–17 2, 9, 16, 23, 30 March 1861 (22–29)
18–21 6, 13, 20, 27 April 1861 (30–37)
22–25 4, 11, 18, 25 May 1861 (38–42)
26–30 1, 8 15, 22, 29 June 1861 (43–52)
31–34 6, 13, 20, 27 July 1861 (53–57)
35 3 August 1861 (58–59)

Reception

Robert L. Patten estimates that All the Year Round sold 100,000 copies of Great Expectations each week, and Mudie, the largest circulating library, which purchased about 1,400 copies, stated that at least 30 people read each copy.[48] Aside from the dramatic plot, the Dickensian humour also appealed to readers. Dickens wrote to Forster in October 1860 that "You will not have to complain of the want of humour as in the Tale of Two Cities,"[49] an opinion Forster supports, finding that "Dickens's humour, not less than his creative power, was at its best in this book."[16][50] Moreover, according to Paul Schlicke, readers found the best of Dickens's older and newer writing styles.[4]

Overall, Great Expectations received near universal acclaim.[4] Not all reviews were favourable; Margaret Oliphant's review, published May 1862 in Blackwood's Magazine, vilified the novel. Critics in the 19th and 20th centuries hailed it as one of Dickens's greatest successes although often for conflicting reasons: GK Chesterton admired the novel's optimism; Edmund Wilson its pessimism; Humphry House in 1941 emphasized its social context. In 1974, Jerome H. Buckley saw it as a bildungsroman, writing a chapter on Dickens and two of his major characters (David Copperfield and Pip) in his 1974 book on the Bildungsroman in Victorian writing.[51] John Hillis Miller wrote in 1958 that Pip is the archetype of all Dickensian heroes.[52] In 1970, QD Leavis suggests "How We Must Read Great Expectations."[53] In 1984, Peter Brooks, in the wake of Jacques Derrida, offered a deconstructionist reading.[54] The most profound analyst, according to Paul Schlicke, is probably Julian Moynahan, who, in a 1964 essay surveying the hero's guilt, made Orlick "Pip's double, alter ego and dark mirror image." Schlicke also names Anny Sadrin's extensive 1988 study as the "most distinguished."[55]

Background

Great Expectations's single most obvious literary predecessor is Dickens's earlier first-person narrator-protagonist David Copperfield. The two novels trace the psychological and moral development of a young boy to maturity, his transition from a rural environment to the London metropolis, the vicissitudes of his emotional development, and the exhibition of his hopes and youthful dreams and their metamorphosis, through a rich and complex first person narrative.[56] Dickens was conscious of this similarity and, before undertaking his new manuscript, reread David Copperfield to avoid repetition.[20]

The two books both detail homecoming. Although David Copperfield is based on much of Dickens personal experiences, Great Expectations provides, according to Paul Schlicke, "the more spiritual and intimate autobiography."[57] Even though several elements hint at the setting — Miss Havisham, partly inspired by a Parisian duchess, whose residence was always closed and in darkness, surrounded by "a dead green vegetable sea," recalling Satis House,[58][59] and the countryside bordering Chatham and Rochester — no place name is mentioned,[N 4] nor a specific time period, which is indicated by, among other elements, older coaches, the title "His Majesty" in reference to George III, and the old London Bridge prior to the 1824–1831 reconstruction.[60]

The theme of homecoming reflects events in Dickens's life, several years prior to the publication of Great Expectations. In 1856, he bought Gad's Hill Place in Higham, Kent, which he had dreamed of living in as a child, and moved there from faraway London two years later. In 1858, in a painful divorce, he separated from Catherine Dickens, his wife of twenty-three years. The divorce alienated him from some of his closest friends, such as Mark Lemon. He quarrelled with Bradbury and Evans, who had published his novels for fifteen years. In early September 1860, in a field behind Gad's Hill, Dickens burned almost all of his correspondence, sparing only letters on business matters.[61][62] He stopped publishing the weekly Household Words at the summit of its popularity and replaced it with All the Year Round.[57]

The Uncommercial Traveller, short stories, and other texts Dickens began publishing in his new weekly in 1859 reflect his nostalgia, as seen in "Dullborough Town" and "Nurses' Stories." According to Paul Schlicke, "it is hardly surprising that the novel Dickens wrote at this time was a return to roots, set in the part of England in which he grew up, and in which he had recently resettled."[57]

Margaret Cardwell draws attention to Chops the Dwarf from Dickens's 1858 Christmas story "Going into Society," who, as the future Pip does, entertains the illusion of inheriting a fortune and becomes disappointed upon achieving his social ambitions.[63] In another vein, Harry Stone thinks that Gothic and magical aspects of Great Expectations were partly inspired by Charles Mathews's At Home, which was presented in detail in Household Words and its monthly supplement Household Narrative. Stone also asserts that The Lazy Tour of Two Idle Apprentices, written in collaboration with Wilkie Collins after their walking tour of Cumberland during September 1857 and published in Household Words from 3 to 31 October of the same year, presents certain strange locations and a passionate love, foreshadowing Great Expectations.[64]

Beyond its biographical and literary aspects, Great Expectations appears, according to Robin Gilmour, as "a representative fable of the age."[65] Dickens was aware that the novel "speaks" to a generation applying, at most, the principle of "self help" which was believed to have increased the order of daily life. That the hero Pip aspires to improve, not through snobbery, but through the Victorian conviction of education, social refinement, and materialism, was seen as a noble and worthy goal. However, by tracing the origins of Pip's "great expectations" to crime, deceit and even banishment to the colonies, Dickens unfavourably compares the new generation to the previous one of Joe Gargery, which Dickens portrays as less sophisticated but especially rooted in sound values, presenting an oblique criticism of his time.[65]

Structure

The narrative structure of Great Expectations is influenced by the fact that it was first published as weekly episodes in a periodical. This required short chapters, centred on a single subject, and an almost mathematical structure.[66]

Chronology

Pip's story is told in three stages: his childhood and early youth in Kent, where he dreams of rising above his humble station; his time in London after receiving "great expectations"; and then finally his disillusionment on discovering the source of his fortune, followed by his slow realisation of the vanity of his false values.[67] These three stages are further divided into twelve parts of equal length. This symmetry contributes to the impression of completion, which has often been commented on. George Gissing, for example, when comparing Joe Gargery and Dan'l Peggotty (from David Copperfield), preferred the former, because he is a stronger character, who lives "in a world, not of melodrama, but of everyday cause and effect."[68] G. B. Shaw also commented on the novel's structure, describing it as "compactly perfect", and Algernon Swinburne stated, "The defects in it are as nearly imperceptible as spots on the sun or shadow on a sunlit sea."[69][70] A contributing factor is "the briskness of the narrative tone."[71]

Narrative flow

Further, beyond the chronological sequences and the weaving of several storylines into a tight plot, the sentimental setting and morality of the characters also create a pattern.[72] The narrative structure of Great Expectations has two main elements: firstly that of "foster parents", Miss Havisham, Magwitch, and Joe, and secondly that of "young people", Estella, Pip and Biddy. There is further organizing element that can be labelled "Dangerous Lovers", which includes Compeyson, Bentley Drummle and Orlick. Pip is the centre of this web of love, rejection and hatred. Dickens contrast this "dangerous love" with the relationship of Biddy and Joe, which grows from friendship to marriage.

This is "the general frame of the novel". The term "love" is generic, applying it to both Pip's true love for Estella and the feelings Estella has for Drummle, which are based on a desire for social advancement. Similarly, Estella's rejects Magwitch because of her contempt for everything that appears below what she believes to be her social status.[73]

Great Expectations has an unhappy ending, since most characters suffer physically, psychologically or both, or die – often violently – while suffering. Happy resolutions remain elusive, while hate thrives. The only happy ending is Biddy and Joe's marriage and the birth of their two children, since the final reconciliations, except that between Pip and Magwitch, do not alter the general order. Though Pip extirpates the web of hatred, the first unpublished ending denies him happiness while Dickens revised second ending, in the published novel, leaves his future uncertain.[74]

Orlick as Pip's double

Julian Monayhan argues that the reader can better understand Pip's personality through analyzing his relationship with Orlick, the criminal laborer who works at Joe Gargery's forge, than by looking at his relationship with Magwitch.[75]

Pip and Biddy followed by Orlick (chapter 17), by John McLenan

Following Monayhan, David Trotter[76] notes, that Orlick is Pip's shadow. Co-workers in the forge, both find themselves at Miss Havisham's, where Pip enters and joins the company, while Orlick, attending the door, stays out. Pip considers Biddy a sister; Orlick has other plans for her; Pip is connected to Magwitch, Orlick to Magwitch's nemesis, Compeyson. Orlick also aspires to "great expectations" and resents Pip's ascension from the forge and the swamp to the glamour of Satis House, from which Orlock is excluded, along with London's dazzling society. Orlick is the cumbersome shadow Pip cannot be rid of.[76]

Then comes Pip's punishment, with Orlick's savage attack on Mrs Gargery. Thereafter Orlick vanishes, only to reappear in chapter 53 in a symbolic act, when he lures Pip into a locked, abandoned building in the marshes. Orlick has a score to settle before going on to the ultimate act, murder. However, Pip hampers Orlick, because of his privileged status, while Orlick remains a slave of his condition, solely responsible for Mrs Gargery's fate.[76][77]

Dickens also uses Pip's upper class counterpart, Bentley Drummle, "the double of a double", according to Trotter, in a similar way.[77] Like Orlick, Drummle is powerful, swarthy, unintelligible, hot-blooded, and lounges and lurks, biding his time. Estella rejects Pip for this rude, uncouth but well-born man, and ends Pip's hope. Finally the lives of both Orlick and Drummle end violently.[77]

Point of view

Pip before Magwitch's return, by John McLenan

Although the novel is written in first person, the reader knows — as an essential prerequisite — that Great Expectations is not an autobiography but a novel, a work of fiction with plot and characters, featuring a narrator-protagonist. In addition, Sylvère Monod notes that the treatment of the autobiography differs from David Copperfield, as Great Expectations does not draw from events in Dickens's life; "at most some traces of a broad psychological and moral introspection can be found".[78]

However, according to Paul Pickrel's analysis, Pip being both narrator and protagonist; recounts with hindsight the story of the young boy he was, who did not know the world beyond a narrow geographic and familial environment. The novel's direction emerges from the confrontation between the two periods of time. At first, the novel presents a mistreated orphan, repeating situations from Oliver Twist and David Copperfield, but the trope is quickly overtaken. The theme manifests when Pip discovers the existence of a world beyond the marsh, the forge and the future Joe envisioned for him, the decisive moment when Miss Havisham and Estella enter his life.[79] This is a red herring, as the decay of Satis House and the strange lady within signals the fragility of an impasse. At this point, the reader knows more than the protagonist, creating dramatic irony that confers a superiority that the narrator shares.[80]

It is not until Magwitch's return, a plot twist that unites loosely connected plot elements and sets them into motion, that the protagonist's point of view joins those of the narrator and the reader.[81] In this context of progressive revelation, the sensational events at the novel's end serve to test the protagonist's point of view. Thus proceeds, in the words of A. E. Dyson, "The Immolations of Pip".[82]

Style

Amongst the narrative devices that Dickens uses, according to Earle Davis, are caricature, comic speech mannerisms, intrigue, Gothic atmosphere, and a central character who gradually changes. Davis also mentions the close network of the structure and balance of contrasts, and praises the first-person narration for providing a simplicity that is appropriate for the story while avoiding melodrama. Davis sees the symbolism attached to "great expectations" as reinforcing the novel's impact.[83]

Genre

Great Expectations contains the elements of a variety of different literary genres, including the bildungsroman, gothic novel. crime novel, as well as comedy, melodrama and satire and it belongs – like Wuthering Heights and the novels of Walter Scott – to the romance rather than realist tradition of the novel.[84]

Bildungsroman

Complex and multifaceted, Great Expectations is a Victorian bildungsroman, a German literary genre from the eighteenth century, also called an initiatory tale. This genre focuses on a protagonist who matures over the course of the novel. Great Expectations describes Pip's initial frustration upon leaving home, followed by a long and difficult period where he gradually matures. This period in his life is punctuated with conflicts between his desires and the values of established order, that allow him to re-evaluate his life and therefore re-enter society on new foundations.[60]

However, if viewed as a primarily retrospective first-person narrative, the novel differs from the two preceding pseudo-autobiographies, David Copperfield and though only partially narrated in first-person, Bleak House (1852), as it falls within several subgenres popular in Dickens' time, as noted by Paul Davis[85] and Philip V Allingham.[60]

Comic novel

Great Expectations contains character and situational comedy, as seen in Pip's Christmas dinner in chapter 4, Wopsle's Hamlet performance in chapter 31, or Wemmick's marriage in chapter 55. It adds a satire of a society favouring wealth and social rank but whose snobbery is matched only by injustice and incompetence. Magwitch, who drives the plot, is the first victim since he is convicted of a minor offense; similarly, the major institutions of the kingdom are abandoned, such as the theater that parody's Wopsle's "great expectations". Davis notes, however, "are absolutely organic to the plot and theme".[86]

Crime fiction

Jaggers asking Molly to show her scarred wrists, by John McLenan

Great Expectations also incorporates elements of the new genre of crime fiction, which Dickens had already used in Oliver Twist (1837), and which was being developed by his friends Wilkie Collins and William Harrison Ainsworth. With its scenes of convicts, prison ships, and episodes of bloody violence, Dickens creates characters worthy of the Newgate School of Fiction,[87]

Gothic novel

Great Expectations also contains elements of the Gothic genre, especially with Miss Havisham, the bride frozen in time, and the ruins of Satis House filled with weeds and spiders,[60] Other characters that can be linked to this genre include the aristocratic Bentley Drummle, because of his extreme cruelty, Pip himself, who spends his youth chasing a frozen beauty, the monstrous Orlick, who systematically attempts to murder his employers. Then there is the fight to the death between Compeyson and Magwitch, and the fire that ends up killing Miss Havisham, scenes that are dominated by horror, suspense, and the sensational, such as are found in gothic novels.[85]

Silver Fork novel

Elements of the Silver Fork novel are found in the character of Miss Havisham and her world, as well as Pip's illusions. This genre, which flourished in the 1820s and 1830s,[88] presents the flashy elegance and aesthetic frivolities found in high society. In some respects, Dickens conceived Great Expectations as an anti Silver Fork novel, attacking Charles Lever's novel A Day's Ride, publication of which began January 1860, in Household Words.[60][89] This can be seen in the way that Dickens satirises the pretensions and morals of Miss Havisham and her sycophants, including the Pockets (except Matthew), and Uncle Pumblechook.[60]

Historical novel

George III guinea. A gold coin worth 21 shillings.

Though Great Expectations is not obviously an historical novel Dickens does emphasise differences between the time that the novel is set (c.1812-46) and when it was written (1860-1).

Great Expectations begins around 1812 (the date of Dickens' birth), continues until around 1830–1835, and then jumps to around 1840–1845, during which the Great Western Railway was built.[60] Though readers today will not notice this, Dickens uses various things to emphasises the differences between 1861 and this earlier period. Among these details – that contemporary readers would have recognized – are the £1 note (in chapter 10) that the Bank Notes Act 1826 had removed from circulation; likewise, the death penalty for deported felons, who returned to Britain, was abolished in 1835. The gallows erected in the swamps, designed to display a rotting corpse, had disappeared by 1832, and George III, the monarch mentioned at the beginning, died in 1820, when Pip would have been seven or eight. Miss Havisham paid Joe 25 guineas, gold coins, when Pip was to begin his apprenticeship (in chapter 13); the guinea coins were slowly going out of circulation after the last new ones were struck with the face of George III in 1799. This also marks the historical period, as the one pound note was the official currency at the time of the novel's publication. Dickens placed the epilogue eleven years after Magwitch's death, which seems to be the time limit of the reported facts. Collectively, the details suggest that Dickens identified with the main character. If Pip is around twenty-three toward the middle of the novel and thirty-four at its end, he is roughly modeled after his creator who turned thirty-four in 1846.[60]

Themes

The title's "Expectations" refers to "a legacy to come",[90] and thus immediately announces that money, or more specifically wealth plays an important part in the novel.[52] Some other major themes are crime, social class, including both gentility, and social alienation, imperialism and ambition. The novel is also concerned with questions relating to conscience and moral regeneration, as well as redemption through love.

Imperialism

Edward W. Said, in his 1993 work Culture and Imperialism, interprets Great Expectations in terms of postcolonial theory about of late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries British imperialism. Pip's disillusionment when he learns his benefactor is an escaped convict from Australia, along with his acceptance of Magwitch as surrogate father, is described by Said as part of "the imperial process", that is the way colonialism exploits the weaker members of a society.[91] Thus the British trading post in Cairo's legitimatises Pip's work as a clerk, but the money earned by Magwitch's honest labour is illegitimate, because Australia is a penal colony, and Magwitch is forbidden to return to Britain.[N 5] Said states that Dickens has Magwitch return to be redeemed by Pip's love, paving the way for Pip's own redemption, but despite this moral message, the book still reinforces standards that support the authority of the British empire.[92] Said's interpretation suggests that Dickens' attitude backs Britain's exploitation of Middle East "through trade and travel", and that Great Expectations affirms the idea of keeping the Empire and its peoples in their place – at the exploitable margins of British society.

However, the novel's Gothic, and Romance genre elements, challenge Said's assumption that Great Expectations is a realist novel like Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe.[84]

Pip as social outcast

Mr Pumblechook: "And may I--May I--?", by John McLenan.

A central theme here, as in other of Dickens' novels, is of people living as social outcasts. The novel opening emphasises this in the case of the orphaned Pip, who lives in an isolated foggy environment next to a graveyard, dangerous swamps, and prison ships. His very existence reproaches him: "I was always treated as if I had insisted on being born in opposition to the dictates of reason, religion and morality".[93]

Pip feels excluded by society and this leads to his aggressive attitude towards it, as he tries to win his place within society through any means. Various other characters behave similarly, and that the oppressed become the oppressors. Jaggers dominates Wemmick, who in turn dominates Jaggers' clients. Likewise Magwich uses Pip as an instrument of vengeance, as Miss Havisham also uses Estella.[94]

However, hope exists despite Pip's sense of exclusion [95] because he is convinced that divine providence owes him a place in society and that marriage to Estella is his destiny. Therefore, when fortune comes his way, Pip shows no surprise, because he believes, that his value as a human being, and his inherent nobility, have been recognized. Thus Pip accepts Pumblechook's flattery without blinking: "That boy is no common boy"[96] and the "May I? May I?" associated with handshakes.[97]

From Pip's hope comes Pip's "uncontrollable, impossible love for Estella",[98] despite the humiliations that she has subjected him. For Pip, winning a place in society also means winning Estella's heart.

Wealth

When the money secretly provided by Magwitch enables Pip to enter London society, two new related themes, wealth and gentility, are introduced.

Chapter 20, outside Bartholomew Close, Jaggers threatening a woman with a shawl called Amelia, by F.A. Fraser.

As the novel's title implies money is a theme of Great Expectations. Central to this is the idea that wealth is only acceptable to the ruling class if it comes from the labour of others.[99] Miss Havisham's wealth comes not from the sweat of her brow but from rent collected on properties she inherited from her father, a brewer. Her wealth is "pure", and her father's profession as a brewer does not contaminate it. Herbert states in chapter 22 that "while you cannot possibly be genteel and bake, you may be as genteel as never was and brew."[100] Because of her wealth, the old lady, despite her eccentricity, enjoys public esteem. She remains in a constant business relationship with her lawyer Jaggers and keeps a tight grip over her "court" of sycophants, so that, far from representing social exclusion, she is the very image of a powerful landed aristocracy that is frozen in the past and "embalmed in its own pride".[101]

On the other hand, Magwitch's wealth is socially unacceptable, firstly because he earned it, not through the efforts of others, but through his own hard work, and secondly because he was a convict, and he earned it in a penal colony. These critics argue that the contrast with Miss Havisham's wealth is suggested symbolically. Thus Magwitch's money smells of sweat, and his money is greasy and crumpled: "two fat sweltering one-pound notes that seemed to have been on terms of the warmest intimacy with all the cattle market in the country",[102] while the coins Miss Havisham gives for Pip's "indentures" shine as if new. Further it is argued Pip demonstrates his "good breeding", because when he discovers that he owes his transformation into a "gentleman" to such a contaminated windfall, he is repulsed in horror.[101] A. O. J. Cockshut, however, has suggested that there is no difference between Magwitch's wealth and that of Miss Havisham's,[103]

Trotter emphasizes the importance of Magwitch's greasy banknotes. Beyond the Pip's emotional reaction the notes reveal that Dickens' views on social and economic progress have changed in the years prior to the publication of Great Expectations.[104] His novels and Household Words extensively reflect Dickens' views, and, his efforts to contribute to social progress expanded in the 1840s. To illustrate his point, he cites Humphry House who, succinctly, writes that in Pickwick Papers, "a bad smell was a bad smell", whereas in Our Mutual Friend and Great Expectations, "it is a problem".[104][105]

Joe commenting on Pip's good fortune, by John McLenan

At the time of The Great Exhibition of 1851, Dickens and Richard Henry Horne an editor of Household Words wrote an article comparing the British technology that created The Crystal Palace to the few artifacts exhibited by China: England represented an openness to worldwide trade, and China isolationism. "To compare China and England is to compare Stoppage to Progress", they concluded. According to Trotter, this was a way to target the Tory government's return to protectionism, which they felt would make England the China of Europe. In fact, Household Words' 17 May 1856 issue, championed international free trade, comparing the constant flow of money to the circulation of the blood.[106] Back in the 1850s, Dickens believed in "genuine" wealth, which critic Trotter compares to fresh banknotes, crisp to the touch, pure and odorless.[106]

With Great Expectations, Dickens' views about wealth have changed. However, though some sharp satire exists, no character in the novel has the role of the moralist that condemn Pip and his society. In fact even Joe and Biddy themselves, paragons of good sense, are complicit, through their exaggerated innate humility, in Pip's social deviancy. Dickens' moral judgement is first made through the way that he contrasts characters: only a few characters keep to the straight and narrow path; Joe, whose values remain unchanged; Matthew Pocket whose pride renders him, to his family's astonishment, unable to flatter his rich relatives; Jaggers, who keeps a cool head and has no illusions about his clients; Biddy, who overcomes her shyness to, from time to time, bring order. The narrator-hero is left to draw the necessary conclusions: in the end, Pip finds the light and embarks on a path of moral regeneration.[107]

London as prison

In London, neither wealth nor gentility brings happiness. Pip, the apprentice gentleman constantly bemoans his anxiety, his feelings of insecurity,[108] and multiple allusions to overwhelming chronic unease, to weariness, drown his enthusiasm (chapter 34).[109] Wealth, in effect, eludes his control: the more he spends, the deeper he goes into debt to satisfy new needs, which were just as futile as his old ones. His unusual path to gentility has the opposite effect to what he expected: infinite opportunities become available, certainly, but will power, in proportion, fades and paralyses the soul. In the crowded metropolis, Pip grows disenchanted, disillusioned, and lonely. Alienated from his native Kent, he has lost the support provided by the village blacksmith. In London, he is powerless to join a community, not the Pocket family, much less Jaggers' circle. London has become Pip's prison and, like the convicts of his youth, he is bound in chains: "no Satis House can be built merely with money".[110][N 6]

Herbert Pocket and Pip in London, by John McLenan

Gentility

"Do you take tea, or coffee, Mr. Gargery?" by F. A. Fraser. c. 1877

The idea of "good breeding" and what makes for a "gentleman" other than money. in other words "gentility", is a central theme of Great Expectations. The convict Magwitch covets it by proxy through Pip; Mrs Pocket dreams of acquiring it; it is also found in Pumblechook's sycophancy; it is even seen in Joe, when he stammers between "Pip" and "Sir" during his visit to London, and when Biddy's letters to Pip suddenly become reverent.

There are other characters who are associated with the idea of gentility like, for example, Miss Havisham's seducer, Compeyson, the scarred-face convict. While Compeyson is corrupt, even Magwitch does not forget he is a gentleman.[111] This also includes Estella, who ignores the fact, that she is the daughter of Magwitch and another criminal.[101]

There are a couple of ways by which someone can acquire gentility, one being a title, another family ties to the upper middle class. Mrs Pocket bases every aspiration on the fact that her grandfather failed to be knighted, while Pip hopes that Miss Havisham will eventually adopt him, as adoption, as evidenced by Estella, who behaves like a born and bred little lady, is acceptable.[112] But even more important, though not sufficient, are wealth and education. Pip knows that and endorses it, as he hears from Jaggers through Matthew Pocket: "I was not designed for any profession, and I should be well enough educated for my destiny if I could hold my own with the average of young men in prosperous circumstances".[113] But neither the educated Matthew Pocket, nor Jaggers, who has earned his status solely through his intellect, can aspire to gentility. Bentley Drummle, however, embodies the social ideal, so that Estella marries him without hesitation.[112]

Moral regeneration

Another theme of Great Expectations is that Pip can undergo "moral regeneration"

In chapter 39, the novel's turning point, Magwitch visits Pip to see the gentleman he has made, and once the convict has hidden in Herbert Pocket's room, Pip realises his situation:

For an hour or more, I remained too stunned to think; and it was not until I began to think, that I began fully to know how wrecked I was, and how the ship in which I had sailed was gone to pieces.

Miss Havisham's intentions towards me, all a mere dream; Estella not designed for me ... But, sharpest and deepest pain of all – it was for the convict, guilty of I knew not what crimes, and liable to be taken out of those rooms where I sat thinking, and hanged at the Old Bailey door, that I had deserted Joe.[114]

To cope with his situation and his learning that he now needs Magwitch, a hunted, injured man who traded his life for Pip's. Pip can only rely on the power of love for Estella[115] Pip now goes through a number of different stages each of which, is accompanied by successive realisations about the vanity of the prior certainties.[116]

Joe learns to read by John McLenan

Pip's problem is more psychological and moral than social. Pip's climbing of the social ladder upon gaining wealth is followed by a corresponding degradation of his integrity. Thus after his first visit in Miss Havisham, the innocent young boy from the marshes, suddenly turns into a liar to dazzle his sister, Mrs Joe, and his Uncle Pumblechook with the tales of a carriage and veal chops.[108] More disturbing is his fascination with Satis House –where he is despised and even slapped, beset by ghostly visions, rejected by the Pockets– and the gradual growth of the mirage of London. The allure of wealth overpowers loyalty and gratitude, even conscience itself. This is evidenced by the urge to buy Joe's return, in chapter 27, Pip's haughty glance as Joe deciphers the alphabet, not to mention the condescending contempt he confesses to Biddy, copying Estella's behaviour toward him.[117]

Trabb's boy mocks Pip in the village highstreet outside the post-office by John McLenan

Pip represents, as do those he mimics, the bankruptcy of the "idea of the gentleman", and becomes the sole beneficiary of vulgarity, inversely proportional to his mounting gentility.[118] In chapter 30, Dickens parodies the new disease that is corroding Pip's moral values through the character "Trabb's boy", who is the only one not to be fooled. The boy parades through the main street of the village with boyish antics and contortions meant to satirically imitate Pip. The gross, comic caricature openly exposes the hypocrisy of this new gentleman in a frock coat and top hat. Trabb's boy reveals that appearance has taken precedence over being, protocol on feelings, decorum on authenticity; labels reign to the point of absurdity, and human solidarity is no longer the order of the day.[119]

Mrs Pocket and her children indulging in idleness by Harry Furniss (1910)

Estella and Miss Havisham represent rich people who enjoy a materially easier life but cannot cope with a tougher reality. Miss Havisham, like a melodramatic heroine, withdrew from life at the first sign of hardship. Estella, excessively spoiled and pampered, sorely lacks judgement and falls prey to the first gentleman who approaches her, though he is the worst. Estella's marriage to such a brute demonstrates the failure of her education. Estella is used to dominating, but becomes a victim to her own vice, brought to her level by a man born, in her image.[120]

Dickens uses imagery to reinforce his ideas and London, the paradise of the rich and of the ideal of the gentleman, has mounds of filth, it is crooked, decrepit, and greasy, a dark desert of bricks, soot, rain, and fog. The surviving vegetation is stunted, and confined to fenced-off paths, without air or light. Barnard's Inn, where Pip dines, offers nauseating food, and its lodgings, despite its furnishing provided, as Suhamy states, "for the money", remains the most uncomfortable, a far cry from Joe's large kitchen, radiating hearth, and his well-stocked pantry.[110]

Likewise, such a world, dominated by the lure of money and social prejudice, also leads to the warping of people and morals, to family discord, war between man and woman.[N 7] In contrast to London's corruption stands Joe, despite his intellectual and social limitationsJoe, in whom the values of the heart prevail and who has natural wisdom .[119]

Pip's conscience

Magwitch's arrest after his capture on the Thames while trying escape to France, by John McLenan

Another important theme is Pip's sense of guilt, which he has felt from an early age. After the encounter with the convict Magwitch Pip is afraid that someone will find out about his crime and arrest him. The theme of guilt comes into even greater effect when Pip discovers that his benefactor is a convict. Pip has an internal struggle with his conscience throughout Great Expectations. Hence the long and painful process of redemption that he undergoes.

Pip's moral regeneration is a true pilgrimage punctuated by suffering like Christian in Bunyan's The Pilgrim's Progress, Pip makes his way up to light through a maze of horrors that afflict his body as well as his mind. This includes the burns he suffers from saving Miss Havisham from the fire; the illness that requires months of recovery; the threat of a violent death at Orlick's hands; debt, and worse, the obligation of having to repay them; hard work, which he recognises as the only worthy source of income, hence his return to Joe's forge. Even more important, is his accepting of Magwitch, a coarse outcast of society.[121]

Dickens makes use of symbolism, in chapter 53, to emphasise Pip moral regeneration . As he prepares to go down the Thames to rescue the convict, a veil lifted from the river and Pip's spirit. Symbolically the fog which enveloped the marshes as Pip left for London has finally lifted, and he feels ready to become a man.[122]

As I looked along the clustered roofs, with Church towers and spires shooting into the unusually clear air, the sun rose up, and a veil seemed to be drawn from the river, and millions of sparkles burst out upon its waters. From me too, a veil seemed to be drawn, and I felt strong and well.[123]
Magwitch's death by John McLenan.

Pip is redeemed by love, that, for Dickens as for generations of Christian moralists, is only acquired through sacrifice.[124] Pip's reluctance completely disappears and he embraces Magwitch.[125] After this, Pip's loyalty remains foolproof, during imprisonment, trial, and death of the convict. He grows selfless and his "expectations" are confiscated by the Crown. Moments before Magwitch's death, Pip reveals that Estella, Magwitch's daughter, is alive, "a lady and very beautiful. And I love her".[126] Here the greatest sacrifice: the recognition that he owes everything, even Estella, to Magwitch; his new debt becomes his greatest freedom.[125]

Pip returns to the forge, his previous state and to meaningful work. The philosophy expressed here by Dickens that of a person happy with their contribution to the welfare of society, is in line with Thomas Carlyle's theories and his condemnation, in Latter-Day Pamphlets (1850), the system of social classes flourishing in idleness, much like Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels did.[N 8][127] Dickens' hero is neither an aristocrat nor a capitalist but a working-class boy.[128]

In Great Expectations, the true values are childhood, youth, and heart. The heroes of the story are the young Pip, a true visionary, and still developing person, open, sensible, who is persecuted by soulless adults. Then the adolescent Pip and Herbert, imperfect but free, intact, playful, endowed with fantasy in a boring and frivolous world. Magwitch is also a positive figure, a man of heart, victim of false appearances and of social images, formidable and humble, bestial but pure, a vagabond of God, despised by men.[N 9] There is also Pip's affectional friend Joe, the enemy of the lie. Finally, there are women like Biddy.

Novels influenced by Great Expectations

Dickens' novel has influenced a number of writers, Sue Roe's Estella: Her Expectations (1982), for example explores the inner life of an Estella fascinated with a Havisham figure.[129] Miss Havisham is again important in Havisham: A Novel (2013), a book by Ronald Frame, that features an imagining of the life of Miss Catherine Havisham from childhood to adulthood.[130] The second chapter of Rosalind Ashe's Literary Houses (1982) paraphrases Miss Havisham's story with details about the nature and structure of Satis House and coloured imaginings of the house within.[131] Miss Havisham is also central to Lost in a Good Book (2002), Jasper Fforde's alternate history, fantasy novel, which features a parody of Miss Havisham.[132] It won the Independent Mystery Booksellers Association 2004 Dilys Award.[133]

Magwitch is the protagonist of Peter Carey's Jack Maggs, which is a re-imagining of Magwitch's return to England, with the addition, among other things, of a fictionalised Dickens character and plot-line.[134] Carey's novel won the Commonwealth Writers Prize in 1998. Mister Pip (2006) is a novel by Lloyd Jones, a New Zealand author. The winner of the 2007 Commonwealth Writers' Prize, Lloyd Jones's novel is set in a village on the Papua New Guinea island of Bougainville during a brutal civil war there in the 1990s, where the young protagonist's life is impacted in a major way by her reading of Great Expectations.[135]

Film, TV and theatrical adaptations

Like many other Dickens novels, Great Expectations has been filmed for the cinema or television numerous times, including:

Stage versions have included:

Bibliography

Texts

General sources

Specific sources

Life and work of Dickens

About Great Expectations

Notes

  1. ↑ Bleak House alternates between a third-person narrator and a first-person narrator, Esther Summerson, but the former is predominant.
  2. ↑ Nineteen double sheets folded in half: on the left, names, incidents, and expressions; on the right, sections of the current chapter.
  3. ↑ George Gissing wrote: "Great Expectations (1861) would be nearly perfect in its mechanism but for the unhappy deference to Lord Lytton's judgment, which caused the end to be altered. Dickens meant to have left Pip a lonely man, and of course rightly so; by the irony of fate he was induced to spoil his work through a brother novelist's desire for a happy ending, a strange thing, indeed, to befall Dickens."
  4. ↑ In Great Expectations, only London is named, along with its neighbourhoods and surrounding communities.
  5. ↑ Cairo was of course not a British colony at this time, though Egypt became a British Protectorate in the 1880s
  6. ↑ From Latin satis, meaning "enough".
  7. ↑ Original quote in French: "un monde que dominent l'appât de l'argent et les préjugés sociaux conduit à la mutilation de l'être, aux discordes de famille, à la guerre entre homme et femme, et ne saurait conduire à quelque bonheur que ce soit".
  8. ↑ Both Marx and Engels condemned the rejection of Carlyle's democratic system but agreed that the aristocracy remains the dominant class.
  9. ↑ Original text in French: "vagabond de Dieu honni des hommes, lépreux porteur de la bonne nouvelle"

References

  1. ↑ "Was Dickens Really Paid By the Word?". University of California Santa Cruz: The Dickens Project. Regents of the University of California. Retrieved 15 February 2013.
  2. ↑ "Great Expectations by Charles Dickens". Cliffsnotes. Retrieved 30 October 2012.
  3. 1 2 3 Charles Dickens 1993, p. 1, introduction.
  4. 1 2 3 Paul Schlicke 1999, p. 263
  5. ↑ Cummings, Mark, ed. (2004). The Carlyle Encyclopedia. Cranbury, N. J.: Associated University Presses. p. 122.
  6. ↑ Shaw, George Bernard (2006). Bloom, Harold, ed. Charles Dickens. Bloom's Modern Critical Views. New York: Infobase Publishings. p. 60.
  7. 1 2 Charles Dickens, Letters, Letter to Mary Boyle, 28 December 1860.
  8. 1 2 Hollington, Michael (1984). "The Grotesque and Tragicomedy in Dickens' Great Expectations". Dickens and the Grotesque (Revised ed.). London: Croom Helm. Retrieved 13 May 2015.
  9. ↑ Jerome Meckier 1992, pp. 157–197.
  10. ↑ Dickens, Charles (1984). "Introduction". Great Expectations. Penguin English Library. p. 12.
  11. 1 2 3 Paul Schlicke 1999, p. 259
  12. ↑ Fred Kaplan, ed. Dickens' Book of Memoranda, 1981.
  13. 1 2 Charles Dickens, letters, Letter to Wilkie Collins, 6 September 1858.
  14. ↑ Charles Dickens 1993, p. xiv, introduction by Margaret Cardwell
  15. ↑ Charles Dickens, Letters, Letter to John Forster, mid-September 1860 (?).
  16. 1 2 3 John Forster 1872–1874, p. 9.3
  17. ↑ Charles Dickens, Letters, Letter to John Forster, 4 October 1860.
  18. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Paul Schlicke 1999, p. 260
  19. ↑ Dallas, E.S. (17 October 1861). "Great Expectations". The Times. p. 6. Retrieved 25 January 2013. (subscription required (help)).
  20. 1 2 Charles Dickens, Letters, Letter to John Forster, beginning October 1860.
  21. ↑ Charles Dickens, Letters, Letter to Wilkie Collins, 14 October 1860.
  22. ↑ Charles Dickens, Letters, Letter to Edmund Yates, 24 February 1861.
  23. ↑ Charles Dickens 1993, p. xxvii–xxx
  24. ↑ Symon, Evan V. (January 14, 2013). "10 Deleted Chapters that Transformed Famous Books". listverse.com.
  25. ↑ Charles Dickens, Letters, Letter to John Forster, April 1861.
  26. ↑ Charles Dickens 1993, p. 412
  27. ↑ Great Expectations, Penguin , 1965, p. 496
  28. ↑ Ian Brinton. "Dickens Bookmarks 12 – Great Expectations" (PDF). Retrieved 25 January 2013.
  29. ↑ Charles Dickens, Letters, Letter to John Forster, 25 June 1861.
  30. ↑ Earle Davis 1963, pp. 261–262
  31. ↑ John Forster 1872–1874, p. 9. 3
  32. 1 2 3 4 Paul Schlicke 1999, p. 261
  33. 1 2 Earle Davis 1963, p. 262
  34. ↑ George Gissing 1925, p. 19, chapter III, The Story-Teller
  35. ↑ John Hillis-Miller 1958, p. 278
  36. ↑ Charles Dickens and Earle Davis (1979). Great Expectations. New York: Holt Rinehart & Winston. ISBN 978-0030779008.
  37. ↑ For a more detailed look into the revision of the ending, see Calum Kerr, From Magwitch to Miss Havisham: Narrative Interaction and Mythic Structure in Charles Dickens’ Great Expectations, "Great Expectations, Critical Insights" (PDF). Retrieved 27 January 2013.
  38. ↑ Orwell, George (1940). George Orwell: Charles Dickens. Inside the Whale and Other Essays (London: Victor Gollancz).
  39. ↑ Robert L. Patten 1978, p. 271
  40. ↑ "Illustrations de McLenan". Retrieved 2 August 2012.
  41. ↑ Robert L. Patten 1978, pp. 288–293
  42. ↑ Dickens, Charles; Muller, Frank (1987). Great Expectations. New York: Recorded Books. ISBN 1-4025-4950-4.
  43. ↑ "Image Gallery for Marcus Stone". ArtMagick. Retrieved 28 January 2013.
  44. ↑ "Various editions of A Christmas Carol". The Bookstall. Retrieved 28 January 2013.
  45. ↑ "Illustrations by John McLenan for Great Expectations". Retrieved 4 September 2012.
  46. ↑ "Illustrations by F. A. Fraser for Great Expectations". Retrieved 4 September 2012.
  47. ↑ "Illustrations by Harry Furniss for Great Expectations". Retrieved 4 September 2012.
  48. ↑ Robert L. Patten 1978, p. 292
  49. ↑ Charles Dickens, Letters, Lettere to John Forster, beginning October 1860
  50. ↑ Forster, John. The Life of Charles Dickens. Retrieved 30 January 2013.
  51. ↑ Jerome Hamilton Buckley 1974
  52. 1 2 John Hillis-Miller 1958, pp. 249–278
  53. ↑ F. R. & Q. D. Leavis 1970
  54. ↑ "Lucie Guillemette and Josiane Cossette, Deconstruction and difference, Trois-Rivières, Université du Québec" (in French). Retrieved 2 August 2012.
  55. ↑ Paul Schlicke 1999, p. 264
  56. ↑ Paul Schlicke 1999, pp. 261–262
  57. 1 2 3 Paul Schlicke 1999, p. 262
  58. ↑ John Forster 1872–1874, p. III, 1
  59. ↑ Cited by George Newlin, Understanding Great Expectations, Westport Greenwood Publishing Group, 2000, p.xiv
  60. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Allingham, Philip V. (9 March 2001). "The Genres of Charles Dickens' Great Expectations – Positioning the Novel (1)". The Victorian Web. Retrieved 26 April 2013.
  61. ↑ Charles Dickens, Letters, Letter to Wills, 4 September 1860
  62. ↑ Gladys Storey, Dickens and Daughter, London, Frederick Muller Ltd, 1939, pp.106–107
  63. ↑ Charles Dickens 1993, p. xiv
  64. ↑ Harry Stone 1979, pp. 279–297
  65. 1 2 Robin Gilmour 1981, p. 123
  66. ↑ Paul Davis 1999, p. 158
  67. ↑ Paul Davis 1999, p. 153
  68. ↑ Cited by Paul Davis 1999, p. 158
  69. ↑ Cited by David Trotter, Introduction to Great Expectations, London, Penguin Books, 1996, p.vii
  70. ↑ Michael Cordell 1990, pp. 34, 24
  71. ↑ Cited in Dickens and the Twentieth Century, Gross, John and Pearson, Gabriel, eds, London, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1962, p.199-211.
  72. ↑ Henri Suhamy 1971, p. 15
  73. ↑ Henri Suhamy 1971, p. 16
  74. ↑ Henri Suhamy 1971, p. 17
  75. ↑ Julian Monayhan, The Hero's Guilt: The Case of Great Expectations, London, Routledge and Kegan Paul, Critical Essays, p. 73-87
  76. 1 2 3 Charles Dickens 1996, p. ix-x
  77. 1 2 3 Charles Dickens 1996, p. x
  78. ↑ Sylvère Monod 1953, p. 443
  79. ↑ Pickrel, Paul. Price, Martin, ed. Great Expectations. Dickens: A Collection of Critical Essays (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall). p. 160.
  80. ↑ Pickrel, Paul. Price, Martin, ed. Great Expectations. Dickens: A Collection of Critical Essays (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall). p. 158.
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  82. ↑ A. E. Dyson 1970, p. 1
  83. ↑ Earle Davis 1963, pp. 262–263
  84. 1 2 "Great Expectations and realism". Approaching literature: Reading Great Expectations. The Open University. 4 July 2013. Retrieved 11 December 2015.
  85. 1 2 Paul Davis 2007, pp. 134–135
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  87. ↑ Keith Hollingsworth (1963), The Newgate Novel, 1830–1847, Bulwer, Ainsworth, Dickens & Thackeray, Detroit: Wayne State University Press
  88. ↑ Alison Adburgham, Silver Fork Society: Fashionable Life and Literature from 1814 to 1840, London, Constable, 1983.
  89. ↑ "A Day's Ride by Charles Lever". Retrieved 25 August 2012.
  90. ↑ John Berseth (2001), "Introduction", Great Expectations, Dover (USA): Dover Publications, Inc., p. 1, ISBN 978-0-486-41586-4
  91. ↑ Edward Said, p. xiv
  92. ↑ Edward Said, p. xv
  93. ↑ Charles Dickens 1993, p. 31
  94. ↑ Charles Dickens 1993, p. 342
  95. ↑ Henri Suhamy 1971, p. 2
  96. ↑ Charles Dickens 1993, p. 141
  97. ↑ Charles Dickens 1993, pp. 140–142
  98. ↑ Jack B. Moore (1965), "Heart and Hands in Great Expectations", Dickensian 61, pp. 52–56
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  100. ↑ Charles Dickens 1993, p. 160
  101. 1 2 3 Henri Suhamy 1971, p. 9
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  103. ↑ Anthony Oliver John Cockshut (1965), The imagination of Charles Dicken, London: Methuen, pp. 192, 164
  104. 1 2 Charles Dickens 1996, p. xiv
  105. ↑ Humphry House 1941, p. 135
  106. 1 2 Charles Dickens 1996, p. xv
  107. ↑ Henri Suhamy 1971, pp. 9–11
  108. 1 2 Henri Suhamy 1971, p. 11
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  110. 1 2 Henri Suhamy 1971, p. 13
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  112. 1 2 Henri Suhamy 1971, p. 10
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  114. ↑ Charles Dickens 1993, p. 279
  115. ↑ John Hillis-Miller 1958, pp. 265, 271
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  124. ↑ John Hillis-Miller 1958, p. 274
  125. 1 2 John Hillis-Miller 1958, p. 276
  126. ↑ Charles Dickens 1993, p. 392
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  129. ↑ Nicolas Tredell, Charles Dickens: David Copperfield/ Great Expectations. (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), p.209.
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  138. ↑ "Irish Playography entry for Hugh Leonard, Great Expectations".
  139. ↑ "Great Expectations Tickets". LOVE Theatre.
  140. ↑ "Great Expectations". Dundee Rep Theatre.
  141. ↑ Eaton, Michael (11 March 2016). "Great Expectations". West Yorkshire Playhouse. Retrieved 11 March 2016.
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