Political campaign

"Electioneering" redirects here. For the Radiohead song, see OK Computer.
Presidential campaign button for Abraham Lincoln, 1860. The reverse side of the button shows a portrait of his running mate Hannibal Hamlin.

A political campaign is an organized effort which seeks to influence the decision making process within a specific group. In democracies, political campaigns often refer to electoral campaigns, wherein representatives are chosen or referendums are decided. In modern politics, the most high profile political campaigns are focused on general elections and candidates for head of state or head of government, often a president or prime minister.

Campaign message

The message of the campaign contains the ideas that the candidate wants to share with the voters. It is to get those who agree with their ideas to support them when running for a political position. The message often consists of several talking points about policy issues. The points summarize the main ideas of the campaign and are repeated frequently in order to create a lasting impression with the voters. In many elections, the opposition party will try to get the candidate "off message" by bringing up policy or personal questions that are not related to the talking points. Most campaigns prefer to keep the message broad in order to attract the most potential voters. A message that is too narrow can alienate voters or slow the candidate down with explaining details. For example, in the 2008 American presidential election John McCain originally used a message that focused on his patriotism and political experience: "Country First"; later the message was changed to shift attention to his role as "The Original Maverick" within the political establishment. Barack Obama ran on a consistent, simple message of "change" throughout his campaign. However, even if the message is crafted carefully, it does not assure the candidate a victory at the polls. For a winning candidate, the message is refined and then becomes his or her in office.

Campaign finance

Main article: Campaign finance

Fundraising techniques include having the candidate call or meet with large donors, sending direct mail pleas to small donors, and courting interest groups who could end up spending millions on the race if it is significant to their interests.

Organization

In a modern political campaign, the campaign organization (or "machine") will have a coherent structure of personnel in the same manner as any business of similar size.

Campaign manager

Main article: Campaign manager

Successful campaigns usually require a campaign manager to coordinate the campaign's operations. Apart from a candidate, they are often a campaign's most visible leader. Modern campaign managers may be concerned with executing strategy rather than setting it - particularly if the senior strategists are typically outside political consultants such as primarily pollsters and media consultants.

Political consultants

Main article: Political consulting

Political consultants advise campaigns on virtually all of their activities, from research to field strategy. Consultants conduct candidate research, voter research, and opposition research for their clients.

Activists

Activists are the "foot soldiers" loyal to the cause, the true believers who will carry the run by volunteer activists. Such volunteers and interns may take part in activities such as canvassing door-to-door and making phone calls on behalf of the campaign.

Campaign ethics and campaign time

Modern political campaigns have set new standards for how successful campaigns are conducted day-to-day. The campaign is conducted in what would seem to the public like pseudo-military style, with a strict chain of command, zero tolerance for certain prohibited actions, and an extended daily schedule that starts early and ends much later than most "day jobs".

Prohibited actions may include, but are not limited to: lying about numbers generated (e.g. phone calls made, doors knocked, volunteers recruited, etc.) - this is increasingly an issue in offices that are wirelessly connected, without direct oversight; going outside the chain of command (e.g. talking to a superior's superior who happens to be a friend in order to get special favors or report information); non-press-shop members talking to the press; blogging (considered another form of "talking to the press", which can interfere with message discipline); and being arrested (or otherwise becoming a potential easy target for opponent smear campaigns).

The daily schedule of a political campaign is hyperextended, and often has no definite beginning or end, only a series of tasks to be completed by certain benchmark times, or, most often, "COB" ("Close of Business"). COB for political campaigns is generally defined as "the time at night at which your supervisor is required to report his/her numbers" (or shortly beforehand), so that your numbers reporting (generally the last action a political campaigner takes before COB) can be factored into theirs. For example, a field organizer may have collected 9 new committed volunteers for an event during the day; he will be required to report this at 8:45pm to his regional field director, so that the regional can report that all field organizers in the region recruited 52 total volunteers for said event; which needs to be reported to the deputy state field director by 9:00, so that THEY can speak to the state field director at 9:15 and report that 827 volunteers have been recruited for events around the state; and so on, up the chain of command.

Once each of these reporting sequences is finished, organizers at all levels may do paperwork, send emails, call friends, and do other things which are not effective to do during business hours or "voter contact time". Political campaigns are generally about contacting voters and volunteers at the nuts-and-bolts level; and so dependent on state law, local peculiarities and the preferences of campaign organizers and volunteers, a certain block of time (usually ending at 8pm or 9pm) is set aside each night for "voter/volunteer contact". (Violation of this block of time to conduct other activities often cannot happen or needs a strong justification, such as attending an important meeting.) Only a very small fraction of campaign workers (such as people who deal with vendors) do the bulk of their work during traditional business hours.

Techniques

Democrat John Edwards makes a campaign speech in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania in 2007.

A campaign team (which may be as small as one inspired individual, or a heavily-resourced group of professionals) must consider how to communicate the message of the campaign, recruit volunteers, and raise money. Campaign advertising draws on techniques from commercial advertising and propaganda. The avenues available to political campaigns when distributing their messages is limited by the law, available resources, and the imagination of the campaigns' participants. These techniques are often combined into a formal strategy known as the campaign plan. The plan takes account of a campaign's goal, message, target audience, and resources available. The campaign will typically seek to identify supporters at the same time as getting its message across.

Campaign communication

Election campaign communication refers to party-controlled communication, e.g. campaign advertising, and party-uncontrolled communication, e.g. media coverage of elections.

Campaign advertising

Main article: Campaign advertising

Campaign advertising is the use of paid media (newspapers, radio, television, etc.) to influence the decisions made for and by groups. These ads are designed by political consultants and the campaign's staff.

Media management

The public media (in US parlance "free media" or "earned media") may run the story that someone is trying to get elected or to do something about certain aspects regarding their specific country.

Mass meetings, rallies and protests

A political rally in Chinatown, Los Angeles, featuring Betty Ford campaigning for her husband, U.S. President Gerald Ford, during the 1976 presidential campaign.

Holding protests, rallies and other similar public events (if enough people can be persuaded to come) may be a very effective campaign tool. Holding mass meetings with speakers is powerful as it shows visually, through the number of people in attendance, the support that the campaign has.

Modern technology and the internet

Main article: Internet activism

The internet is now a core element of modern political campaigns. Communication technologies such as e-mail, web sites, and podcasts for various forms of activism to enable faster communications by citizen movements and deliver a message to a large audience. These Internet technologies are used for cause-related fundraising, lobbying, volunteering, community building, and organizing. Individual political candidates are also using the internet to promote their election campaign. In a study of Norwegian election campaigns, politicians reported they used social media for marketing and for dialogue with voters. Facebook was the primary platform for marketing and Twitter was used for more continuous dialogue.[1]

Signifying the importance of internet political campaigning, Barack Obama's presidential campaign relied heavily on social media, and new media channels to engage voters, recruit campaign volunteers, and raise campaign funds. The campaign brought the spotlight on the importance of using internet in new-age political campaigning by utilizing various forms of social media and new media (including Facebook, YouTube and a custom generated social engine) to reach new target populations. The campaign's social website, my.BarackObama.com, utilized a low cost and efficient method of mobilizing voters and increasing participation among various voter populations.[2] This new media was incredibly successful at reaching the younger population while helping all populations organize and promote action.

Now Online Election campaign has got a new dimension, the campaign information can be shared as in Rich Info format through campaign landing pages, integrating Google’s rich snippets, structured data, Social media open graphs, and husting support file formats for YouTube like .sbv (SubRip), .srt (subtitle resource track), .vtt (Video text trace), high proficiency and effective algorithmic integration will be the core factor in the frame-work. This technology integration helps campaign information to reach a wide audience in split seconds. This has successfully been tested and implemented in 2015 Aruvikkara Election Kerala.

Husting

Main article: Husting

A husting, or the hustings, was originally a physical platform from which representatives presented their views or cast votes before a parliamentary or other election body. By metonymy, the term may now refer to any event, such as debates or speeches, during an election campaign where one or more of the representative candidates are present.

Search Engine Manipulation Effect (SEME)

Main article: Search Engine Manipulation Effect (SEME)

Search Engine Manipulation Effect (SEME), and ability to reach the millennial demographic over social media and search engines have become an important component to Online Husting based campaign efforts, this feature can now be enriched with Google’s latest optimization tactics, such as Structured Data Markup integration helps to publish campaign content in more prominent way. First time such SEME based election campaign tactics is about to implement in Indian Assembly Election 2016 by Mr. Jayakumar K, Digital Marketing and campaign expert holding the position of CEO in CEARSLEG Technologies Pvt Ltd.

It’s evident that SEME can influence unbiased voters heavily, a study by Mr. Ronald E. Robertson (Senior Research Psychologist at the American Institute of Behavioural Research and Technology and the former editor in chief of Psychology Today )

Other techniques

NDP leader Jack Layton and Bloc Québécois leader Gilles Duceppe greet babies - a traditional campaign activity - at the Fête nationale du Québec in Montreal

Campaign types

Informational campaign

An informational campaign is a political campaign designed to raise public awareness and support for the positions of a candidate (or his party).[5] It is more intense than a paper campaign, which consists of little more than filing the necessary papers to get on the ballot, but is less intense than a competitive campaign, which aims to actually win election to the office. An informational campaign typically focuses on low-cost outreach such as news releases, getting interviewed in the paper, making a brochure for door to door distribution, organizing poll workers, etc.[6]

Paper campaign

A paper campaign is a political campaign in which the candidate only files the necessary paperwork to appear on the ballot.[7][8] The purpose of such a token effort may be simply to increase name awareness of a minor political party or to give voters of a certain ideology an opportunity to vote accordingly. It can be a cost-effective means of attracting media coverage. An informational campaign, by contrast, may involve news releases, newspaper interviews, door-to-door campaigning, and organizing polls. As the level of seriousness rises, the marginal cost of reaching more people rises accordingly, due to the high cost of TV commercials, paid staff, etc. which are used by competitive campaigns.[9]

Modern election campaigns in the United States

Types of elections

Walter Faulkner, candidate for U.S. Congress in 1938, campaigns in person with a farmer in Crossville, Tennessee (photo by Dorothea Lange)

The United States is unusual in that dozens of different offices are filled by election, from drain commissioner to the President of the United States. Elections happen every year on many different dates in many different areas of the country.

All federal elections (that is, elections for president and vice president as well as elections to the House of Representatives and Senate) are partisan. Elections to most (but not all) statewide offices are partisan as well, and all state legislatures except for Nebraska are partisan.

Some state and local offices are non-partisan - these often include judicial elections, special district elections (the most common of which are elections to the school board, and elections to municipal (town council, city commission, mayor) and county (county commission, district attorney, sheriff) office. In some cases, candidates of the same political party challenging each other and in many cases without any campaign references to political parties, while in other cases, even non-partisan races may take on partisan overtones.

Process of campaigning

U.S. President Richard Nixon campaigns in 1972 by "working the crowd" and shaking hands with supporters.

Major campaigns in the United States are often much longer than those in other democracies.

Campaigns start anywhere from several months to several years before election day. The first part of any campaign for a candidate is deciding to run. Prospective candidates will often speak with family, friends, professional associates, elected officials, community leaders, and the leaders of political parties before deciding to run. Candidates are often recruited by political parties and lobby groups interested in electing like-minded politicians. During this period, people considering running for office will consider their ability to put together the money, organization, and public image needed to get elected. Many campaigns for major office do not progress past this point as people often do not feel confident in their ability to win. However, some candidates lacking the resources needed for a competitive campaign proceed with an inexpensive paper campaign or informational campaign designed to raise public awareness and support for their positions.

Once a person decides to run, they will make a public announcement. This announcement could consist of anything from a simple press release to concerned media outlets to a major media event followed by a speaking tour. It is often well-known to many people that a candidate will run prior to an announcement being made. Campaigns will often be announced and then only officially "kicked off" months after active campaigning has begun. Being coy about whether a candidacy is planned is often a deliberate process by a prospective candidate, either to "test the waters" or to keep the media's attention.

One of the most important aspects of the major American political campaign is the ability to raise large sums of money, especially early on in the race. Political insiders and donors often judge candidates based on their ability to raise money. Not raising enough money early on can lead to problems later as donors are not willing to give funds to candidates they perceive to be losing, a perception based on their poor fundraising performance.

Also during this period, candidates travel around the area they are running in and meet with voters; speaking to them in large crowds, small groups, or even one-on-one. This allows voters to get a better picture of who a candidate is than that which they read about in the paper or see on television. Campaigns sometimes launch expensive media campaigns during this time to introduce the candidate to voters, although most wait until closer to election day.

Campaigns often dispatch volunteers into local communities to meet with voters and persuade people to support the candidate. The volunteers are also responsible for identifying supporters, recruiting them as volunteers or registering them to vote if they are not already registered. The identification of supporters will be useful later as campaigns remind voters to cast their votes.

Late in the campaign, campaigns will launch expensive television, radio, and direct mail campaigns aimed at persuading voters to support the candidate. Campaigns will also intensify their grassroots campaigns, coordinating their volunteers in a full court effort to win votes.

Voting in the United States often starts weeks before election day as mail-in ballots are a commonly used voting method. Campaigns will often run two persuasion programs, one aimed at mail-in voters and one aimed at the more traditional poll voters.

Campaigns for minor office may be relatively simple and inexpensive - talking to local newspapers, giving out campaign signs, and greeting people in the local square.

Political consultants

Main article: Political consulting

Political campaigns in the United States are not merely a civic ritual and occasion for political debate, but a multibillion-dollar industry, dominated by professional political consultants using sophisticated campaign management tools, to an extent far greater than elsewhere in the world. Though the quadrennial presidential election attracts the most attention, the United States has a huge number of elected offices and there is wide variation between different states, counties, and municipalities on which offices are elected and under what procedures. Moreover, unlike democratic politics in much of the rest of the world, the US has relatively weak parties. While parties play a significant role in fundraising and occasionally in drafting people to run, campaigns are ultimately controlled by the individual candidates themselves.

Other issues and criticisms

Cost of campaign advertising

American political campaigns have become heavily reliant on broadcast media and direct mail advertising (typically designed and purchased through specialized consultants). Though virtually all campaign media are sometimes used at all levels (even candidates for local office have been known to purchase cable TV ads), smaller, lower-budget campaigns are typically more focused on direct mail, low-cost advertising (such as lawn signs), and direct voter contact. This reliance on expensive advertising is a leading factor behind the rise in the cost of running for office in the United States. This rising cost is considered by some to discourage those without well-monied connections, or money themselves, from running for office.

Independent expenditures

Money is raised and spent not only by candidate's campaign, but also by party committees, political action committees, and other groups (in the 2004 election cycle, much controversy has focused on a new category of organization, 527 groups). This is sometimes done through independent expenditures made in support or opposition of specific candidates but without any candidate's cooperation or approval. The lack of an overt connection between a candidate and third party groups allows one side of a campaign to attack the other side while avoiding criticism for going negative. A memorable example are the Swift Boat Veterans who criticized John Kerry in the 2004 Presidential campaign.[10]

Future developments

Many political players and commentators agree that American political campaigns are currently undergoing a period of change, due to increased use of the internet (which has become a valuable fundraising tool) and the apparently declining effectiveness of television advertising.

However, as modern technology continues to adapt to changes in society, Internet campaigning will never be able to serve as a complete replacement for traditional political campaigning without reducing the significant barriers to entry.[11] Internet political campaigning leaves out entire portions of each population because it only is accessible to a certain portion of the population, leaving those without this access disconnected.

For example, during Obama’s recent presidential campaign, Internet political campaigning was supposedly effective at reaching the younger population, as they remain engaged with social websites and new media.[12] Because of the limits of technology, Obama’s Internet campaign failed to reach older generations who didn’t use this new media, as well as significant amounts of the population who didn’t have access.

Effects

Presidential campaigns

A large body of political science research emphasizes how "fundamentals" - the state of the economy, whether the country is at war, how long the president’s party has held the office, and which candidate is more ideologically moderate - predict presidential election outcomes.[13][14][15][16][17] However, campaigns may be necessary to enlighten otherwise uninformed voters about the fundamentals, which thus become increasingly predictive of preferences as the campaign progresses.[13][18][19][20] Research suggests that the "2012 presidential campaigns increased turnout in highly targeted states by 7-8 percentage points, on average, indicating that modern campaigns can significantly alter the size and composition of the voting population".[21]

National conventions

A consensus in the political science literature holds that national conventions usually have a measurable effect on presidential elections that is relatively resistant to decay.[20][19][18]

Presidential and vice-presidential debates

Research is mixed on the precise impact of debates.[18][20][22]

Presidential primaries

The fundamentals matter less in the outcome of presidential primaries. One prominent theory holds that the outcome of presidential primaries is largely determined by the preferences of party elites.[23] Presidential primaries are therefore less predictive, as all kinds of events may impact elites' perception of the viability of candidates. Gaffes, debates and media narratives play a greater role in primaries than in presidential elections.[24][14]

Strategies

Traditional ground campaigning and voter contacts remain the most effective strategies.[21][25] Some research suggests that knocking on doors can increase turnout by as much as 10%[26] and phone calls by as much as 4%.[27] One study suggests that lawn signs increase vote share by 1.7 percentage points.[28] A review of more than 200 get-out-the-vote experiments finds that The most effective tactics are personal: Door-to-door canvassing increases turnout by an average of about 2.5 percentage points; volunteer phone calls raise it by about 1.9 points, compared to 1.0 points for calls from commercial phone banks; automated phone messages are ineffective.[29][30] Each field office that the Obama campaign opened in 2012 gave him approximately a 0.3% greater vote share.[31] The Obama 2008 campaign's use of field most offices has been credited as crucial in winning Indiana and North Carolina.[32] According to one study, the cost per vote by having a field office is $49.40.[32] Using out-of-state volunteers for canvassing is less effective in increasing turnout than using local and trained volunteers.[33][34] Political science research generally finds negative advertisement to be ineffective both at reducing candidate support and decreasing turnout.[35] Challengers who spend more time campaigning get a higher vote share against incumbents in state house elections.[36]

History

A whistle stop train tour in Keyser, West Virginia, in 1948. From left to right: President Harry S. Truman at the microphone, Congressional candidate Harley Orrin Staggers, and Senator Harley M. Kilgore.

Political campaigns have existed as long as there have been informed citizens to campaign amongst. Democratic societies have regular election campaigns, but political campaigning can occur on particular issues even in non-democracies so long as freedom of expression is allowed. Often mass campaigns are started by the less privileged or anti-establishment viewpoints (as against more powerful interests whose first resort is lobbying). The phenomenon of political campaigns are tightly tied to lobby groups and political parties.

The first modern campaign is thought to be William Ewart Gladstone's Midlothian campaign in 1878-80, although there may be earlier recognizably modern examples from the 19th century.

In the 1790-1820s, the Federalist Party and the Democratic-Republican Party battled it out in the so-called "First Party System". American election campaigns in the 19th century created the first mass-base political parties and invented many of the techniques of mass campaigning. The 1896 William McKinley presidential campaign laid the groundwork for modern campaigns.

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Political campaigns.
Techniques and traditions
General topics
Examples

Further reading

Sources

World

United States

References

  1. ↑ Enli, Sara Gunn; Skogerbø, Eli (2013). "Personalized campaigns in party-centred politics". Information, Communication & Society 16 (5): 757. doi:10.1080/1369118x.2013.782330.
  2. ↑ Lyons, Daniel (2008-11-22). "President 2.0". Newsweek. Retrieved 2010-05-11. Obama harnessed the grass-roots power of the Web to get elected. How will he use that power now?
  3. ↑ Campaign TV
  4. ↑ Diane Tucker, Dawn Teo (3 November 2008). "Off The Bus: Obama Campaign Rewrites Fundraising Rules by Selling Merchandise". Huffington Post. Retrieved 20 May 2009.
  5. ↑ sisr.net
  6. ↑ "Changing Focus/Priorities". Lppa.org. Archived from the original on July 25, 2008. Retrieved 2008-11-08.
  7. ↑ Dullard Mush: 10 Questions With Libertarian Party of Nevada Chairman Jim Duensing, Pt. 2
  8. ↑ http://www.lpillinois.org/news/newsletters/LPI2002Issue4.pdf
  9. ↑ Changing Focus/Priorities
  10. ↑ Jim Rassmann (August 10, 2004). "Shame on the Swift Boat Veterans for Bush". Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 2007-02-17.
  11. ↑ "New media and the Election: Thus Far and No Farther". The Economist. 2010-03-18. Retrieved 2010-04-18. The potential—and limits—of the internet in political campaigning
  12. ↑ Schmidt/Washington, Tracy (2007-07-03). "Reaching Out Early for the Youth Vote". Time.com. Retrieved 2010-05-07.
  13. 1 2 Gelman, Andrew; King, Gary (2008-01-17). "Why are American Presidential Election Campaign Polls so Variable When Votes are so Predictable?". Rochester, NY: Social Science Research Network.
  14. 1 2 Noel, Hans. "Ten Things Political Scientists Know that You Don't". The Forum 8 (3). doi:10.2202/1540-8884.1393.
  15. ↑ Bartels, Larry M.; Zaller, John (2001-03-01). "Presidential Vote Models: A Recount". PS: Political Science & Politics null (01): 9–20. doi:10.1017/S1049096501000026. ISSN 1537-5935.
  16. ↑ Jr, Douglas A. Hibbs (2000-07-01). "Bread and Peace Voting in U.S. Presidential Elections". Public Choice 104 (1-2): 149–180. doi:10.1023/A:1005292312412. ISSN 0048-5829.
  17. ↑ "Vavreck, L.: The Message Matters: The Economy and Presidential Campaigns. (eBook and Paperback)". press.princeton.edu. Retrieved 2016-04-23.
  18. 1 2 3 "The Timeline of Presidential Elections". University of Chicago Press. Retrieved 2016-04-23.
  19. 1 2 "The Obama Victory". global.oup.com. Retrieved 2016-04-23.
  20. 1 2 3 "Sides, J. and Vavreck, L.: The Gamble: Choice and Chance in the 2012 Presidential Election. (Updated Edition) (eBook and Paperback)". press.princeton.edu. Retrieved 2016-04-23.
  21. 1 2 "Aggregate Effects of Large-Scale Campaigns on Voter Turnout" (PDF).
  22. ↑ Shaw, Daron R. (1999-05-01). "A Study of Presidential Campaign Event Effects from 1952 to 1992". The Journal of Politics 61 (02): 387–422. doi:10.2307/2647509. ISSN 1468-2508.
  23. ↑ "The Party Decides". University of Chicago Press. Retrieved 2016-04-23.
  24. ↑ "Why News Coverage of the Debate May Matter More than the Debate - The Monkey Cage". The Monkey Cage. Retrieved 2016-04-23.
  25. ↑ Weinschenk, Aaron C. (2015-09-01). "Polls and Elections: Campaign Field Offices and Voter Mobilization in 2012". Presidential Studies Quarterly 45 (3): 573–580. doi:10.1111/psq.12213. ISSN 1741-5705.
  26. ↑ Gerber, Alan S.; Green, Donald P. (2000-01-01). "The Effects of Canvassing, Telephone Calls, and Direct Mail on Voter Turnout: A Field Experiment". The American Political Science Review 94 (3): 653–663. doi:10.2307/2585837.
  27. ↑ Nickerson, David W. (2007-04-01). "Quality Is Job One: Professional and Volunteer Voter Mobilization Calls". American Journal of Political Science 51 (2): 269–282. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5907.2007.00250.x. ISSN 1540-5907.
  28. ↑ Green, Donald P.; Krasno, Jonathan S.; Coppock, Alexander; Farrer, Benjamin D.; Lenoir, Brandon; Zingher, Joshua N. (2016-03-01). "The effects of lawn signs on vote outcomes: Results from four randomized field experiments". Electoral Studies 41: 143–150. doi:10.1016/j.electstud.2015.12.002.
  29. ↑ Green, Donald P.; McGrath, Mary C.; Aronow, Peter M. (2013-02-01). "Field Experiments and the Study of Voter Turnout". Journal of Elections, Public Opinion and Parties 23 (1): 27–48. doi:10.1080/17457289.2012.728223. ISSN 1745-7289.
  30. ↑ Jacobson, Gary C. (2015-01-01). "How Do Campaigns Matter?". Annual Review of Political Science 18 (1): 31–47. doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-072012-113556.
  31. ↑ Masket, Seth; Sides, John; Vavreck, Lynn (2015-07-27). "The Ground Game in the 2012 Presidential Election". Political Communication 0 (0): 1–19. doi:10.1080/10584609.2015.1029657. ISSN 1058-4609.
  32. 1 2 Darr, Joshua P.; Levendusky, Matthew S. (2014-05-01). "Relying on the Ground Game The Placement and Effect of Campaign Field Offices". American Politics Research 42 (3): 529–548. doi:10.1177/1532673X13500520. ISSN 1532-673X.
  33. ↑ Sinclair, Betsy; McConnell, Margaret; Michelson, Melissa R. (2013-01-01). "Local Canvassing: The Efficacy of Grassroots Voter Mobilization". Political Communication 30 (1): 42–57. doi:10.1080/10584609.2012.737413. ISSN 1058-4609.
  34. ↑ Middleton, Joel A. "Do Community-Based Voter Mobilization Campaigns Work Even in Battleground States? Evaluating the Effectiveness of MoveOn's 2004 Outreach Campaign". Quarterly Journal of Political Science 3 (1): 63–82. doi:10.1561/100.00007019.
  35. ↑ Lau, Richard R.; Sigelman, Lee; Rovner, Ivy Brown (2007-11-01). "The Effects of Negative Political Campaigns: A Meta-Analytic Reassessment". Journal of Politics 69 (4): 1176–1209. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2508.2007.00618.x. ISSN 1468-2508.
  36. ↑ Miller, Michael G. (2016-05-01). "The Power of an Hour: Effects of Candidate Time Expenditure in State Legislative Elections". Legislative Studies Quarterly 41 (2): 327–359. doi:10.1111/lsq.12116. ISSN 1939-9162.

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