History of the Jews in Europe

Jews, originally Judaean Israelite tribes from the Levant in Western Asia,[1][2][3][4] migrated to Europe just before the rise of the Roman Empire. A notable early event in the history of the Jews in the Roman Empire was Pompey's conquest of the East beginning in 63 BCE though Alexandrian Jews had migrated to Rome before this event.

The pre-World War II population of the Jews of Europe is estimated at close to 9 million.[5] Around 6 million Jews were killed[6][7][8] during the Holocaust, which was followed by emigration of much of the surviving population. The current Jewish population of Europe is estimated at ca. 2 million (0.3%), composed of

History

Jews of Germany, 13th century

Early presence

Hellenistic Judaism, originating from Alexandria, was present throughout the Roman Empire even before the Jewish–Roman wars. Large numbers lived in Greece (including the Greek isles in the Aegean and Crete) as early as the early part of the 3rd century B.C.E. The first recorded mention of Judaism in Greece dates from 300-250 Before Common Era (BCE) on the island of Rhodes.[9] As early as the middle of the 2nd century BC, the Jewish author of the third book of the Oracula Sibyllina, addressing the "chosen people," says: "Every land is full of thee and every sea." The most diverse witnesses, such as Strabo, Philo, Seneca, Cicero, and Josephus, all mention Jewish populations in the cities of the Mediterranean Basin. Most Jewish population centers of this period were however still in the East (Iudaea and Syria) and in Egypt (Alexandria was by far the most important of the Jewish communities, the Jews in Philo's time were inhabiting two of the five sections of the city). Nevertheless, a Jewish community is recorded to have existed in Rome at least since the 1st century B.C.E. (Although They may even have established a community there as early as the second century B.C.E, for in the year 139 B.C. the pretor Hispanus issued a decree expelling all Jews who were not Italian citizens).[10] At the commencement of the reign of Caesar Augustus (27BC) there were over 7,000 Jews in Rome: this is the number that escorted the envoys who came to demand the deposition of Archelaus. The Jewish historian Josephus confirms that as early as 90 CE there was already a Jewish diaspora living in Europe, made-up of the two tribes, Judah and Benjamin. Thus, he writes in his Antiquities:[10] “ …there are but two tribes in Asia (Turkey) and Europe subject to the Romans, while the ten tribes are beyond Euphrates till now and are an immense multitude.”

The Roman Empire period presence of Jews in Croatia dates to the 2nd century, in Pannonia to the 3rd to 4th century. A finger ring with a Menorah depiction found in Augusta Raurica (Kaiseraugst, Switzerland) in 2001 attests to Jewish presence in Germania Superior.[11] Evidence in towns north of the Loire or in southern Gaul date to the 5th century and 6th centuries.[12] By late antiquity Jewish communities were found in modern-day France and Germany.[13][14]

Persecution of Jews in Europe begins with the presence of Jews in regions that later became known as the lands of Latin Christendom (c. 8th century CE)[15][16][17][18] and modern Europe.[19] Not only were Jewish Christians persecuted according to the New Testament, but also as a matter of historical fact anti-Jewish pogroms occurred not only in Jerusalem (325 CE), Persia (351 CE), Carthage (250 CE), Alexandria (415), but also in Italy (224 CE), Milan (379 CE) and Minorca (418 CE), Antioch (489), Daphne-Antioch (506), Ravenna (519), amongst other places. Hostility between Christians and Jews grew over the generations under Roman sovereignty and beyond; eventually forced conversion, property confiscation, synagogue burning, expulsion, stake burning, enslavement and outlawing of Jews—even whole Jewish communities—occurred countless times in the lands of Latin Christendom.[20][21][22]

Middle Ages

Expulsions of Jews in Europe from 1100 to 1600.

The early medieval period was a time of flourishing Jewish culture. Jewish and Christian life evolved in ‘diametrically opposite directions’ during the final centuries of Roman empire. Jewish life became autonomous, decentralized, community-centered. Christian life became a rigid hierarchical system under the supreme authority of the Pope and the Roman Emperor.[23]

Jewish life can be characterized as democratic. Rabbis in the Talmud interpreted Deut. 29:9, “your heads, your tribes, your elders, and your officers, even all the men of Israel” and “Although I have appointed for you heads, elders, and officers, you are all equal before me” (Tanhuma) to stress political shared power. Shared power entailed responsibilities: “you are all responsible for one another. If there be only one righteous man among you, you will all profit from his merits, and not you alone, but the entire world...But if one of you sins, the whole generation will suffer.”[24]

Between 800 and 1100 there were 1.5 million Jews in Christian Europe. They were not part of the feudal system as serfs or knights, thus were spared the oppression and warfare.

In relations with the Christian society, they were protected by kings, princes and even bishops, because of the crucial services they provided in three areas: financial, administrative and as doctors. Christian scholars interested in the Bible would consult with Talmudic rabbis. All this changed with the reforms and strengthening of the Roman Catholic Church and the rise of competitive middle-class, town dwelling Christians. By 1300 the friars and local priests were using the Passion Plays at Easter time, which depicted Jews in contemporary dress killing Christ, to teach the general populace to hate and murder Jews. It was at this point that persecution and exile became endemic. Finally around 1500, Jews found security and a renewal of prosperity in Poland.[25]

In the Early Middle Ages persecution of Jews also continued in the lands of Latin Christendom. After the Visigoths converted from more tolerant non-trinitarian Arianism to stricter trinitarian Nicene Christianity of Rome, in 612 CE and again in 642 CE expulsions of all Jews were decreed in the Visigoth Empire.[26] The Catholic Merovingian dynasty decreed forced conversion for Jews in 582 and 629 CE. Under the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Toledo multiple persecutions (633, 653, 693) and stake burnings of Jews (638 CE) occurred; the Kingdom of Toledo followed up on this tradition in 1368, 1391, 1449, and 1486-1490 CE including forced conversions and mass murder, and there were rioting and a blood bath against the Jews of Toledo in 1212 CE. Jewish pogroms occurred in the Diocese of Clement (France 554 CE) and in the Diocese of Uzes (France 561 CE).[21][22]

Persecution of Jews in Europe increased in the High Middle Ages in the context of the Christian Crusades. In the First Crusade (1096) flourishing communities on the Rhine and the Danube were utterly destroyed; see German Crusade, 1096. In the Second Crusade (1147) the Jews in France were subject to frequent massacres. The Jews were also subjected to attacks by the Shepherds' Crusades of 1251 and 1320. The Crusades were followed by expulsions, including in, 1290, the banishing of all English Jews. In 1396, 100,000 Jews were expelled from France; and, in 1421 thousands were expelled from Austria. Many of the expelled Jews fled to Poland.[27][28][29]

In the Late Middle Ages, in the mid-14th century, the Black Death epidemics devastated Europe, annihilating more than half of the population. It is an oft-told myth that due to better nutrition and greater cleanliness, Jews were not infected in similar numbers; Jews were indeed infected in numbers similar to their non-Jewish neighbors[30] Yet they were still made scapegoats. Rumors spread that Jews caused the disease by deliberately poisoning wells . Hundreds of Jewish communities were destroyed by violence. Although Pope Clement VI tried to protect them with his July 6, 1348 papal bull and another papal bull in 1348, several months later 900 Jews were burnt alive in Strasbourg, where the plague hadn't yet reached the city.[31] Christian accusations of host desecration and blood libels were made against Jews. Pogroms followed, and the destruction of Jewish communities yielded the funds for many Pilgrimage churches or chapels throughout the Middle Ages (e.g. Saint Werner's Chapels of Bacharach, Oberwesel, Womrath; Deggendorfer Gnad in Bavaria).

Jewish survival in the face of external pressures from the Roman Catholic empire and the Persian Zoroastrian empire is seen as ‘enigmatic’ by historians.[32]

Baron credits Jewish survival to eight factors:

  1. Messianic faith: Belief in an ultimately positive outcome and restoration to them of the Land of Israel.
  2. The doctrine of the World-to-Come increasingly elaborated: Jews were reconciled to suffering in this world, which helped them resist outside temptations to convert.
  3. Suffering was given meaning through hope-inducing interpretation of their history and their destiny.
  4. The doctrine of martyrdom and inescapability of persecution transformed it into a source of communal solidarity.
  5. Jewish daily life was very satisfying. Jews lived among Jews. In practice, in a lifetime, individuals encountered overt persecution only on a few dramatic occasions. Jews mostly lived under discrimination that affected everyone, and to which they were habituated. Daily life was governed by a multiplicity of ritual requirements, so that each Jew was constantly aware of God throughout the day. “For the most part, he found this all-encompassing Jewish way of life so eminently satisfactory that he was prepared to sacrifice himself...for the preservation of its fundamentals.”[33] Those commandments for which Jews had sacrificed their lives, such as defying idolatry, not eating pork, observing circumcision, were the ones most strictly adhered to.[34]
  6. The corporate development and segregationist policies of the late Roman empire and Persian empire, helped keep Jewish community organization strong.
  7. Talmud provided an extremely effective force to sustain Jewish ethics, law and culture, judicial and social welfare system, universal education, regulation of strong family life and religious life from birth to death.
  8. The concentration of Jewish masses within ‘the lower middle class’,[35] with the middle class virtues of sexual self-control. There was a moderate path between asceticism and licentiousness. Marriage was considered to be the foundation of ethnic, and ethical, life.

Outside hostility only helped cement Jewish unity and internal strength and commitment.

Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain

The Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain refers to a period of history during the Muslim rule of Iberia in which Jews were generally accepted in society and Jewish religious, cultural and economic life blossomed. This "Golden Age" is variously dated from the 8th to 12th centuries.

Al-Andalus was a key center of Jewish life during the Middle Ages, producing important scholars and one of the most stable and wealthy Jewish communities. A number of famous Jewish philosophers and scholars flourished during this time, most notably Maimonides.

Spanish Inquisition

Sultan Bayezid II sent Kemal Reis to save the Arabs and Sephardic Jews of Spain from the Spanish Inquisition in 1492, and granted them permission to settle in the Ottoman Empire
Main article: Spanish Inquisition

The Spanish Inquisition was established in 1478 by Catholic Monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella to maintain Catholic orthodoxy in their kingdoms and was under the direct control of the Spanish monarchy. It was not definitively abolished until 1834, during the reign of Isabel II.

The Inquisition, as an ecclesiastical tribunal, had jurisdiction only over baptized Christians. However, since Jews (in 1492) and Muslim Moors (in 1502) had been banished from Spain, jurisdiction of the Inquisition during a large part of its history extended in practice to all royal subjects. The Inquisition worked in large part to ensure the orthodoxy of recent converts known as conversos or marranos.

Poland as the center of the Jewish community

For more details on this topic, see History of the Jews in Poland before the 18th century.

The expulsion of the Jews from Spain in 1492, as well as expulsion from Austria, Hungary and Germany, stimulated a widespread Jewish migration to the much more tolerant Poland. Indeed, with the expulsion of the Jews from Spain, Poland became the recognized haven for exiles from the rest of Europe; and the resulting accession to the ranks of Polish Jewry made it the cultural and spiritual center of the Jewish people in Europe.

The most prosperous period for Polish Jews began following this new influx of Jews with the reign of Zygmunt I (1506–1548), who protected the Jews in his realm. His son, Zygmunt II August (1548–1572), mainly followed the tolerant policy of his father and also granted autonomy to the Jews in the matter of communal administration, laying the foundation for the power of the Qahal, or autonomous Jewish community. This period led to the creation of a proverb about Poland being a "heaven for the Jews". According to some sources, about three-quarters of all the Jews in Europe lived in Poland by the middle of the 16th century.[36][37][38] In the middle of the 16th century, Poland welcomed Jewish newcomers from Italy and Turkey, mostly of Sephardi origin; however some of the immigrants from the Ottoman Empire claimed to be Mizrahim. Jewish religious life thrived in many Polish communities. In 1503, the Polish monarchy appointed Rabbi Jacob Polak, the official Rabbi of Poland, marking the emergence of the Chief Rabbinate. Around 1550, many Sephardi Jews travelled across Europe to find a haven in Poland. Therefore, the Polish Jews are said to be of many ethnic origins including Ashkenazic, Sephardic, and Mizrahi. During the 16th and 17th century Poland had the largest Jewish population in the whole of Europe. By 1551, Polish Jews were given permission to choose their own Chief Rabbi. The Chief Rabbinate held power over law and finance, appointing judges and other officials.Other powers were shared with local councils. The Polish government permitted the Rabbinate to grow in power and used it for tax collection purposes. Only 30% of the money raised by the Rabbinate went to the Jewish communities. The rest went to the Crown for protection. In this period Poland-Lithuania became the main center for Ashkenazi Jewry, and its yeshivot achieved fame from the early 16th century.

Moses Isserles (1520–1572), an eminent Talmudist of the 16th century, established his yeshiva in Kraków. In addition to being a renowned Talmudic and legal scholar, Isserles was also learned in Kabbalah, and studied history, astronomy, and philosophy.

The development of Judaism in Poland and the Commonwealth

A Jewish couple, Poland, c. 1765
For more details on this topic, see History of the Jews in pre-18th-century Poland.

The culture and intellectual output of the Jewish community in Poland had a profound impact on Judaism as a whole. Some Jewish historians have recounted that the word Poland is pronounced as Polania or Polin in Hebrew, and as transliterated into Hebrew. These names for Poland were interpreted as "good omens" because Polania can be broken down into three Hebrew words: po ("here"), lan ("dwells"), ya ("God"), and Polin into two words of: po ("here") lin ("[you should] dwell"). The "message" was that Poland was meant to be a good place for the Jews. During the time from the rule of Sigismund I the Old until the Nazi Holocaust, Poland would be at the center of Jewish religious life.

Late renaissance synagogue in Zamość (1610–1620).

Yeshivot were established, under the direction of the rabbis, in the more prominent communities. Such schools were officially known as gymnasiums, and their rabbi principals as rectors. Important yeshivot existed in Kraków, Poznań, and other cities. Jewish printing establishments came into existence in the first quarter of the 16th century. In 1530, a Hebrew Pentateuch (Torah) was printed in Kraków; and at the end of the 16th century the Jewish printing houses of that city and Lublin issued a large number of Jewish books, mainly of a religious character. The growth of Talmudic scholarship in Poland was coincident with the greater prosperity of the Polish Jews; and because of their communal autonomy educational development was wholly one-sided and along Talmudic lines. Exceptions are recorded, however, where Jewish youth sought secular instruction in the European universities. The learned rabbis became not merely expounders of the Law, but also spiritual advisers, teachers, judges, and legislators; and their authority compelled the communal leaders to make themselves familiar with the abstruse questions of Jewish law. Polish Jewry found its views of life shaped by the spirit of Talmudic and rabbinical literature, whose influence was felt in the home, in school, and in the synagogue.

In the first half of the 16th century the seeds of Talmudic learning had been transplanted to Poland from Bohemia, particularly from the school of Jacob Pollak, the creator of Pilpul ("sharp reasoning"). Shalom Shachna (c. 1500 – 1558), a pupil of Pollak, is counted among the pioneers of Talmudic learning in Poland. He lived and died in Lublin, where he was the head of the yeshivah which produced the rabbinical celebrities of the following century. Shachna's son Israel became rabbi of Lublin on the death of his father, and Shachna's pupil Moses Isserles (known as the ReMA) (1520–1572) achieved an international reputation among the Jews as the author of the Mappah, which adapted the Shulkhan Arukh to meet the needs of the Ashkenazi community. His contemporary and correspondent Solomon Luria (1510–1573) of Lublin also enjoyed widespread popularity among his co-religionists; and the authority of both was recognized by the Jews throughout Europe. Heated religious disputations were common, and Jewish scholars participated in them. At the same time, the Kabbalah had become entrenched under the protection of Rabbinism; and such scholars as Mordecai Jaffe and Yoel Sirkis devoted themselves to its study. This period of great Rabbinical scholarship was interrupted by the Chmielnicki Uprising and The Deluge.

Israel ben Eliezer, founder of Hasidism.

The rise of Hasidism

Main article: Hasidic Judaism

The decade from the Cossacks' uprising until after the Swedish war (1648–1658) left a deep and lasting impression not only on the social life of the Polish-Lithuanian Jews, but on their spiritual life as well. The intellectual output of the Jews of Poland was reduced. The Talmudic learning which up to that period had been the common possession of the majority of the people became accessible to a limited number of students only. What religious study there was became overly formalized, some rabbis busied themselves with quibbles concerning religious laws; others wrote commentaries on different parts of the Talmud in which hair-splitting arguments were raised and discussed; and at times these arguments dealt with matters which were of no practical importance. At the same time, many miracle workers made their appearance among the Jews of Poland, culminating in a series of false "Messianic" movements, most famously Sabbateanism and Frankism.

Into this time of mysticism and overly formal rabbinism came the teachings of Israel ben Eliezer, known as the Baal Shem Tov, or BeShT, (1698–1760), which had a profound effect on the Jews of Central Europe and Poland in particular. His disciples taught and encouraged a new fervent brand of Judaism based on Kabbalah known as Hasidism. The rise of Hasidic Judaism within Poland's borders and beyond had a great influence on the rise of Haredi Judaism all over the world, with a continuous influence through its many Hasidic dynasties including those of Chabad-Lubavitch, Aleksander, Bobov, Ger, and Nadvorna. More recent rebbes of Polish origin include Rabbi Yosef Yitzchok Schneersohn (1880–1950), the sixth head of the Chabad Lubavitch Hasidic movement, who lived in Warsaw until 1940 when he moved Lubavitch from Warsaw to the United States. See also: List of Polish Rabbis

19th century

The Jews in Central Europe (1881)

In the Papal States, which existed until 1870, Jews were required to live only in specified neighborhoods called ghettos. Until the 1840s, they were required to regularly attend sermons urging their conversion to Christianity. Only Jews were taxed to support state boarding schools for Jewish converts to Christianity. It was illegal to convert from Christianity to Judaism. Sometimes Jews were baptized involuntarily, and, even when such baptisms were illegal, forced to practice the Christian religion. In many such cases the state separated them from their families. See Edgardo Mortara for an account of one of the most widely publicized instances of acrimony between Catholics and Jews in the Papal States in the second half of the 19th century.

The movement of Zionism originates in the late 19th century. In 1883, Nathan Birnbaum founded Kadimah, the first Jewish student association in Vienna. In 1884, the first issue of Selbstemanzipation (Self Emancipation) appeared, printed by Birnbaum himself. The Dreyfus Affair, which erupted in France in 1894, profoundly shocked emancipated Jews. The depth of antisemitism in a country thought of as the home of enlightenment and liberty led many to question their future security in Europe. Among those who witnessed the Affair was an Austro-Hungarian (born in Budapest, lived in Vienna) Jewish journalist, Theodor Herzl, who published his pamphlet Der Judenstaat ("The Jewish State") in 1896[39] and Altneuland ("The Old New Land") in 1897.[40] He described the Affair as a personal turning point, Before the Affair, Herzl had been anti-Zionist; afterwards he became ardently pro-Zionist. In line with the ideas of 19th-century German nationalism Herzl believed in a Jewish state for the Jewish nation. In that way, he argued, the Jews could become a people like all other peoples, and antisemitism would cease to exist.[41]

Herzl infused political Zionism with a new and practical urgency. He brought the World Zionist Organization into being and, together with Nathan Birnbaum, planned its First Congress at Basel in 1897.[42] For the first four years, the World Zionist Organization (WZO) met every year, then, up to the Second World War, they gathered every second year. Since the war, the Congress has met every four years.

History of the Jews in Hungary

In what is now known as Hungary, there were Jewish communities even before the Hungarian Conquest of 895. They settled down in around 200-300 A.D., when those who where to be the founders of the Jewish community emigrated to the territory that would become modern day Hungary. They were merchants from the Roman Empire and slaves from what is now Israel.

Saint Stephen, Hungary’s first Christian king, despite his efforts to spread his religion, practiced fairly liberal politics and ensured equal legal rights to people of all religions, including the Jews. During the reign of Stephen I., Jews were able to move to the developing towns, and so the „historical religious communities” evolved, these were Buda, Esztergom, Tata and Óbuda. The medieval Jewry’s heyday occurred with the zenith of the country’s political and economical development, during the reign of King Matthias. However, after the death of Matthias in 1490 and as a result of the approaching Turkish threat – antisemitism reared its head. In the middle of the 17th century however, Buda, being home to famous scholars, rabbis, kabbalists, writers, and poets speaking the Hebrew language, developed into the most important European Jewish community of the time. After Buda’s recapture in 1686, Jews arrived to the country’s deserted western and eastern border-land along with German and Slovakian settlers from Czech-Moravia, later from Poland, and Galicia, which had fallen under the control of the Monarchy. In 1769 20.000, in 1787 80.000 people belonged to the Jewish population of Hungary. Members of the community made their living in agricultural and wine trade.

In the early 19th century, in the reform age the progressive nobility set many goals of innovation, like the emancipation of the Hungarian Jewry. Hungarian Jews were able to play a part in the economy by playing an important role in industrial and trading development. For example, Isac Lőwy (1793–1847) founded his leather factory on a previously purchased piece of land in 1835, and created a new, modern town, with independent authority, religious equality and industrial freedom independent from the guilds. The town, which was given the name Újpest (New Pest), soon became a very important settlement. Its first synagogue was built in 1839. (Újpest, the current capital’s 4th district is in the northern part of Budapest. During the time of the Holocaust 20,000 Jews were deported from here.) Mór Fischer Farkasházi (1800–1880) founded his world-famous porcelain factory in Herend in 1839, its artistic porcelains decorated, among others, Queen Victoria’s table.

Religious organizations

In 1868/69 three major Jewish organizations were founded: the largest group were the more modern congressional or neolog Jews, the very traditional minded joined the orthodox movement, and the conservatives formed the status quo organization. The neolog Grand Synagogue had been built earlier, in 1859, in the Dohány Street. The main status quo temple, the nearby Rumbach Street Synagogue was constructed in 1872. The Budapest orthodox synagogue is located on Kazinczy Street, along with the orthodox community’s headquarters and mikveh.

World War II and the Holocaust

Main article: Holocaust

The Holocaust of the Jewish people (from the Greek ὁλόκαυστον (holókauston): holos, "completely" and kaustos, "burnt"), also known as Ha-Shoah (Hebrew: השואה‎), Churben (Yiddish: חורבן‎), as described in June 2013 at Auschwitz by Avner Shalev (Director of Yad Vashem) is the term generally used to describe the killing of approximately 6,000,000 Jews during World War II, as part of a program of deliberate attempt to annihilate the Jewish people, executed by the National Socialist regime in Nazi Germany led by Adolf Hitler and its collaborators; the result of the Shoah or the Holocaust of the Jewish people was the destruction of hundreds of Jewish communities in continental Europe — two out of three Jews of Europe were murdered.

Jewish Holocaust death toll as a % of the total pre-war Jewish population
The Jewish population growth/decline by country between 1945-1946 and 2010. The countries with the greatest Jewish population losses since 1945 were primarily those in Central and Eastern Europe, which had Communist governments for most of the late 20th century.

Demographics

Country Core Jewish population in 2010[43] Enlarged Jewish population in 2010[43] Jewish groups Jewish history Lists of Jews
 Albania <100 Albania South-East European
 Andorra <100 Andorra
 Austria 9,000 15,000 Austria Austrian
 Belarus 12,926 (Belarus census (2009)) 33,000 Belarus Russia, Ukraine and Belarus
 Belgium 30,300 40,000 Jewish Community of Antwerp Belgium West European
 Bosnia and Herzegovina 500 Bosnia and Herzegovina South-East European
 Bulgaria 2,000 Bulgaria South-East European
 Croatia 1,700 Croatia South-East European
 Cyprus <100 Cyprus South-East European
 Czech Republic 3,900 Czech Republic and Carpathian Ruthenia Czech, Slovak
 Denmark 6,400 Denmark North European
 Estonia 1,800 3,000 Estonia North European
 Finland 1,100 Finland North European
 France 483,500 580,000 France French
 Georgia 3,200 6,000 Georgian Jews Georgia Asian
 Germany 119,000 250,000 Ashkenazi Jews Germany German
 Gibraltar 600 Sephardi Jews and British Jews Gibraltar Iberian
 Greece 4,500 Romaniotes, Sephardi Jews Greece South-East European
 Hungary 48,600 100,000 Oberlander Jews, Satmar Hasidic dynasty, and Neolog Hungary and Carpathian Ruthenia Hungarian
 Iceland 10 - 30 Radhanites Iceland North European
 Ireland 1,900 Ireland West European
 Italy 28,400 35,000 Italian Jews Italy West European
 Kosovo <100 Kosovo South-East European
 Latvia 6,437 (Latvian census of 2011) 19,000 Latvia North European
 Liechtenstein <100 Liechtenstein
 Lithuania 3,400[44] (2011 estimate) 5,000 Lithuanian Jews Lithuania North European
 Luxembourg 600 Luxembourg West European
 Republic of Macedonia 100 Macedonian Macedonia South-East European
 Malta <100 Malta
 Moldova 4,100 8,000 Bessarabian Jews Moldova East European
 Monaco <100 Monaco West European
 Montenegro <100 Montenegro South-East European
 Netherlands 30,000 43,000 Sephardi and Ashkenazi Netherlands and Chuts West European
 Norway 1,200 Jews in Norway Norway North European
 Poland 3,200 Chronology of Jewish Polish history Poland Polish
 Portugal 500 Spanish and Portuguese Jews Portugal Iberian
 Romania 9,700 18,000 Romania Romanian
 Russia 157,673 (including Asiatic Russia) (Russian Census (2010)) 400,000 Ashkenazi Jews & Mountain Jews Russia Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus
 San Marino <100 San Marino
 Serbia 1,400 Serbian Serbia South-East European
 Slovakia 2,600 Oberlander Jews Slovakia and Carpathian Ruthenia Czech, Slovak
 Slovenia 100 Slovenia South-East European
 Spain 12,000 15,000 Sephardi Jews, Moroccan Jews, Jews from Latin America Spain and golden age Iberian
 Sweden 15,000 25,000 Sweden North European
  Switzerland 17,600 25,000 Switzerland West European
 Turkey 17,600 21,000 Turkey [45] Sephardic
 Ukraine 71,500 145,000 Ashkenazi Jews Ukraine and Carpathian Ruthenia Russia, Ukraine and Belarus
 United Kingdom 292,000 350,000 British Jews United Kingdom British

Jewish ethnic subdivisions of Europe

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Jared Diamond (1993). "Who are the Jews?" (PDF). Retrieved November 8, 2010. Natural History 102:11 (November 1993): 12-19.
  2. ↑ "Jewish and Middle Eastern non-Jewish populations share a common pool of Y-chromosome biallelic haplotypes". Retrieved 11 October 2012.
  3. ↑ Wade, Nicholas (9 May 2000). "Y Chromosome Bears Witness to Story of the Jewish Diaspora". The New York Times. Retrieved 10 October 2012.
  4. ↑ Shriver, Tony N. Frudakis ; with a chapter 1 introduction by Mark D. (2008). Molecular photofitting : predicting ancestry and phenotype using DNA. Amsterdam: Elsevier/Academic Press. ISBN 9780120884926.
  5. ↑ Jewish Gen—The Given Names Data Base, 2013.
  6. ↑ jewishvirtuallibrary
  7. ↑ projetaladin
  8. ↑ Dawidowicz, Lucy. The War Against the Jews, Bantam, 1986.p. 403]
  9. ↑ The Foundation for the Advancement of Sephardic Studies and Culture, p. 3
  10. 1 2 Josephus Flavius, Antiquities, xi.v.2
  11. ↑ The Kaiseraugst Menorah Ring. Jewish Evidence from the Roman Period in the Northern Provinces Augusta Raurica 2005/2, accessed November 24, 2009. (german)
  12. ↑ Eli Barnavi: The Beginnings of European Jewry. The genesis of Ashkenazi identity My Jewish Learning, accessed November 24, 2009.
  13. ↑ "Germany: Virtual Jewish History Tour". Jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved 2013-07-19.
  14. ↑ "Archäologische Zone - JĂźdisches Museum". Museenkoeln.de. Retrieved 2013-07-19.
  15. ↑ Norman F. Cantor, The Civilization of the Middle Ages, 1993, ""Culture and Society in the First Europe", pp185ff.
  16. ↑ Lewis & Wigen 1997, pp. 23–25
  17. ↑ Davies, Norman (1996). Europe: A History, by Norman Davies, p. 8. ISBN 978-0-19-820171-7. Retrieved 23 August 2010.
  18. ↑ Lewis & Wigen 1997, pp. 27–28
  19. ↑ Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopaedia 2007. Europe. Archived from the original on 31 October 2009. Retrieved 27 December 2007.
  20. ↑ Walter Laqueur (2006): The Changing Face of Antisemitism: From Ancient Times to the Present Day, Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-530429-2. p.46-48
  21. 1 2 Grosser, P.E. and E.G. Halperin. "Jewish Persecution - History of AntiSemitism - Lesser Known Highlights of Jewish International Relations In The Common Era". simpletoremember.com. SimpleToRemember.com - Judaism Online. Retrieved 6 February 2015.
  22. 1 2 Grosser, Paul E.; Halperin, Edwin G.; foreword by St. John, Robert; preface by Littell, Franklin H. (1979). Anti-Semitism : the causes and effectos of a prejudice. Secaucus, N.J.: Citadel Press. ISBN 0806507039. Retrieved 6 February 2015.
  23. ↑ Salo Wittmayer Baron, “A Social and Religious History of the Jews,” Volume II, Ancient Times, Part II. p 200 Jewish Publication Society of America, 1952.
  24. ↑ Salo Wittmayer Baron, “A Social and Religious History of the Jews,” Volume II, Ancient Times, Part II. p 200 Jewish Publication Society of America, 1952.
  25. ↑ Cantor, Norman F.. The Last Knight: The Twilight of the Middle Ages and the Birth of the Modern Era. ISBN 0-7432-2688-7 Free Press 2004
  26. ↑ Dietrich Claude, in Walter Pohl (ed.) Strategies of Distinction: Construction of Ethnic Communities, 300-800 (Transformation of the Roman World, vol. 2), 1998 ISBN ISBN 90-04-10846-7
  27. ↑ Why the Jews? Holocaust Center of the United Jewish Federation of Pittsburgh, accessed November 24, 2009.
  28. ↑ "The Jews of Poland". Bernard Dov Weinryb. Retrieved 9 November 2013.
  29. ↑ CHERIE WOODWORTH. "Where Did the East European Jews Come From?" (PDF). Yale University. Retrieved 9 November 2013.
  30. ↑ Jane S. Gerber, “The Jews of Spain,” p 112 The Free Press, 1992.
  31. ↑ See Stéphane Barry and Norbert Gualde, La plus grande épidémie de l'histoire ("The greatest epidemics in history"), in L'Histoire magazine, n°310, June 2006, p.47 (French)
  32. ↑ Salo Wittmayer Baron, “A Social and Religious History of the Jews,” Volume II, Ancient Times, Part II. p 215 Jewish Publication Society of America, 1952.
  33. ↑ Baron, p. 216
  34. ↑ Baron, p. 216-17
  35. ↑ Baron, p. 217
  36. ↑ George Sanford, Historical Dictionary of Poland (2nd ed.) Oxford: The Scarecrow Press, 2003. p. 79.
  37. ↑ European Jewish Congress - Poland
  38. ↑ The Virtual Jewish History Tour - Poland. Jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved on 2010-08-22.
  39. ↑ Theodor Herzl: The Jewish State, english translation WZO, The Hagshama Department, accessed November 24, 2009.
  40. ↑ Theodor Herzl: Altneuland, english translation WZO, The Hagshama Department, accessed November 24, 2009.
  41. ↑ Hannah Arendt, 1946, ' Der Judenstaat 50 years later', also published in: Hannah Arendt, The Jew as pariah, NY, 1978, N. Finkelstein, 2002, Image and reality of the Israel-Palestine conflict, 2nd ed., p. 7-12
  42. ↑ First Zionist Congress: Basel 29 - 31 August 1897 The Herzl Museum, Jerusalem, accessed November 24, 2009.
  43. 1 2
  44. ↑
  45. ↑ Turkish Jews#Notable Turkish Jews Turkish
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