Regional effects of global warming

Most areas across the world were warmer between 1999-2008, compared to 1940-1980
Mean surface temperature change for 1999–2008 relative to the average temperatures from 1940 to 1980
Future warming across the globe varies according to different projections of greenhouse gas emissions
Projected changes in average temperatures across the world in the 2050s under three greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions scenarios, relative to average temperatures between 1971-1999[1]

Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming. The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases, especially carbon dioxide. When the global temperature changes, the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth. In particular, land areas change more quickly than oceans, and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics, and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores.

Regional effects of global warming vary in nature. Some are the result of a generalised global change, such as rising temperature, resulting in local effects, such as melting ice. In other cases, a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system. In such cases, the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend.

There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate: melting or forming ice, changing the hydrological cycle (of evaporation and precipitation) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere. The coast can also be considered a region, and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise.

Regional impacts

Highlights of recent and projected regional impacts are shown below:[2]

Impacts on Africa

[2]

Impacts on Arctic and Antarctic

[2]


Impacts on Asia

[2]

Impacts on Europe

[2]

Impacts on Latin America

[2]

Impacts on North America

Refer to caption
Projected change in seasonal mean surface air temperature from the late 20th century (1971-2000 average) to the middle 21st century (2051-2060).[4] The left panel shows changes for June–July–August (JJA) seasonal averages, and the right panel shows changes for December–January–February (DJF).[4] The change is in response to increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases and aerosols based on a "middle of the road" estimate of future emissions (SRES emissions scenario A1B).[4] Warming is projected to be larger over continents than oceans, and is largest at high latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere during Northern Hemisphere winter (DJF)[4] (Credit: NOAA Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory).[5]

[2]

Impacts on Oceania

[2]


Impacts on Small Islands

[2]

Inundation, displacement, and national sovereignty of small islands

According to scholar Tsosie, environmental disparities among disadvantaged communities including poor and racial minorities, extend to global inequalities between the developed and developing countries.[6] For example, according to Barnett, J. and Adger, W.N. the projected damage to small islands and atoll communities will be a consequence of climate change caused by developing countries that will disproportionately affect these developing nations.[7]

Sea-level rise and increased tropical cyclones are expected to place low-lying small islands in the Pacific, Indian, and Caribbean regions at risk of inundation and population displacement.[7][8][9]

According to N. Mimura's study on the vulnerability of island countries in the South Pacific to sea level rise and climate change, financially burdened island populations living in the lowest-lying regions are most vulnerable to risks of inundation and displacement.[9] On the islands of Fiji, Tonga and western Samoa for example, high concentrations of migrants that have moved from outer islands inhabit low and unsafe areas along the coasts.[9]

Atoll nations, which include countries that are composed entirely of the smallest form of islands, called motus, are at risk of entire population displacement.[6][7] These nations include Kiribati, Maldives, the Marshall Islands, Tokelau, and Tuvalu.[7][8] According to a study on climate dangers to atoll countries, characteristics of atoll islands that make them vulnerable to sea level rise and other climate change impacts include their small size, their isolation from other land, their low income resources, and their lack of protective infrastructure.[7]

A study that engaged the experiences of residents in atoll communities found that the cultural identities of these populations are strongly tied to these lands.[10] The risk of losing these lands therefore threatens the national sovereignty, or right to self-determination, of Atoll nations.[7] Human rights activists argue that the potential loss of entire atoll countries, and consequently the loss of cultures and indigenous lifeways cannot be compensated with financial means.[6][7] Some researchers suggest that the focus of international dialogues on these issues should shift from ways to relocate entire communities to strategies that instead allow for these communities to remain on their lands.[6][10]

Especially affected regions

The Arctic, Africa, small islands and Asian megadeltas are regions that are likely to be especially affected by future climate change.[11] Within other areas, some people are particularly at risk from future climate change, such as the poor, young children and the elderly.[11]

The Arctic

The Arctic is likely to be especially affected by climate change because of the high projected rate of regional warming and associated impacts.[11] Temperature projections for the Arctic region were assessed by Anisimov et al. (2007).[12] These suggested areally averaged warming of about 2 °C to 9 °C by the year 2100. The range reflects different projections made by different climate models, run with different forcing scenarios. Radiative forcing is a measure of the effect of natural and human activities on the climate. Different forcing scenarios reflect, for example, different projections of future human greenhouse gas emissions.

Africa

Africa is likely to be the continent most vulnerable to climate change.[13] With high confidence, Boko et al. (2007) projected that in many African countries and regions, agricultural production and food security would probably be severely compromised by climate change and climate variability.[14]

The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP, 2007)[15] produced a post-conflict environmental assessment of Sudan. According to UNEP (2007),[16] environmental stresses in Sudan are interlinked with other social, economic and political issues,[17] such as population displacement and competition over natural resources. Regional climate change, through decreased precipitation, was thought to have been one of the factors which contributed to the conflict in Darfur.[17] Along with other environmental issues, climate change could negatively affect future development in Sudan.[18] One of the recommendations made by UNEP (2007) was for the international community to assist Sudan in adapting to climate change.[19]

Small islands

On small islands, sea level rise is expected to exacerbate inundation, erosion and other coastal hazards, and threaten vital infrastructure, human settlements and facilities that support the livelihood of island communities.[20] In the coastal zone of Asia, there are 11 megadeltas with an area greater than 10,000 km2.[21] These megadeltas are homes to millions of people, and contain diverse ecosystems. Climate change and sea level rise could increase the frequency and level of inundation of Asian megadeltas due to storm surges and floods from river drainage.

Ice-cover changes

Permanent ice cover on land is a result of a combination of low peak temperatures and sufficient precipitation. Some of the coldest places on Earth, such as the dry valleys of Antarctica, lack significant ice or snow coverage due to a lack of snow. Sea ice however maybe formed simply by low temperature, although precipitation may influence its stability by changing albedo, providing an insulating covering of snow and affecting heat transfer. Global warming has the capacity to alter both precipitation and temperature, resulting in significant changes to ice cover. Furthermore, the behaviour of ice sheets, ice caps and glaciers is altered by changes in temperature and precipitation, particularly as regards the behaviour of water flowing into and through the ice.

Arctic sea ice

Arctic sea ice minima in 2005, 2007, and the 1979-2000 average.
Main article: Arctic shrinkage

Recent projections of sea ice loss suggest that the Arctic ocean will likely be free of summer sea ice sometime between 2059 and 2078.[22]

Models showing decreasing sea ice also show a corresponding decrease in polar bear habitat.[23] Some scientists see the polar bear as a species which will be affected first and most severely by global warming because it is a top-level predator in the Arctic,[24] which is projected to warm more than the global average.[25] Recent reports show polar bears resorting to cannibalism,[26] and scientists state that these are the only instances that they have observed of polar bears stalking and killing one another for food.[27]

Antarctica

The collapse of Larsen B, showing the diminishing extent of the shelf from 1998 to 2002

The Antarctic peninsula has lost a number of ice shelves recently. These are large areas of floating ice which are fed by glaciers. Many are the size of a small country. The sudden collapse of the Larsen B ice shelf in 2002[28] took 5 weeks or less and may have been due to global warming.[29] Larsen B had previously been stable for up to 12,000 years.[30]

Concern has been expressed about the stability of the West Antarctic ice sheet. A collapse of the West Antarctic ice sheet could occur "within 300 years [as] a worst-case scenario. Rapid sea-level rise (>1 m per century) is more likely to come from the WAIS than from the [Greenland ice sheet]."[31]

Greenland

As the Greenland ice sheet loses mass from calving of icebergs as well as by melting of ice, any such processes tend to accelerate the loss of the ice sheet.[32]

The IPCC suggest that Greenland will become ice free at around 5 Celsius degrees over pre-industrial levels, but subsequent research comparing data from the Eemian period suggests that the ice sheet will remain at least in part at these temperatures.[33] The volume of ice in the Greenland sheet is sufficient to cause a global sea level rise of 7 meters. It would take 3,000 years to completely melt the Greenland ice sheet.[34] This figure was derived from the assumed levels of greenhouse gases over the duration of the experiment. In reality, these greenhouse gas levels are of course affected by future emissions and may differ from the assumptions made in the model.

Glaciers

Glacier retreat not only affects the communities and ecosystems around the actual glacier, but the entire downstream region. The most notable example of this is in India, where river systems such as the Indus and Ganges are ultimately fed by glacial meltwater from the Himalayas. Loss of these glaciers will have dramatic effects on the downstream region, increasing the risk of drought as lower flows of meltwater reduce summer river flows unless summer precipitation increases. Altered patterns of flooding can also affect soil fertility.[35]

The Tibetan Plateau contains the world's third-largest store of ice. Qin Dahe, the former head of the China Meteorological Administration, said that the recent fast pace of melting and warmer temperatures will be good for agriculture and tourism in the short term; but issued a strong warning:

"Temperatures are rising four times faster than elsewhere in China, and the Tibetan glaciers are retreating at a higher speed than in any other part of the world.... In the short term, this will cause lakes to expand and bring floods and mudflows. . . . In the long run, the glaciers are vital lifelines for Asian rivers, including the Indus and the Ganges. Once they vanish, water supplies in those regions will be in peril."[36]

Permafrost regions

Regions of permafrost cover much of the Arctic. In many areas, permafrost is melting, leading to the formation of a boggy, undulating landscape filled with thermokarst lakes and distinctive patterns of drunken trees. The process of permafrost melting is complex and poorly understood since existing models do not include feedback effects such as the heat generated by decomposition.[37]

Arctic permafrost soils are estimated to store twice as much carbon as is currently present in the atmosphere in the form of CO2. Warming in the Arctic is causing increased emissions of CO2 and Methane (CH4).[38]

Precipitation and vegetation changes

The Eastern Amazon rainforest may be replaced by Caatinga vegetation as a result of global warming.

Much of the effect of global warming is felt through its influence on rain and snow. Regions may become wetter, drier, or may experience changes in the intensity of precipitation - such as moving from a damp climate to one defined by a mixture of floods and droughts. These changes may have a very severe impact on both the natural world and human civilisation, as both naturally occurring and farmed plants experience regional climate change that is beyond their ability to tolerate.

A U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) analysis published in the Journal of Climate October 2011, and cited on Joseph J. Romm's, climateprogress.org, found that increasing droughts in the Middle East during the wintertime when the region traditionally most of its rainfall to replenish aquifers, and anthropogenic climate change is partly responsible. Per Earth System Research Laboratory's Martin Hoerling “The magnitude and frequency of the drying that has occurred is too great to be explained by natural variability alone,” and “This is not encouraging news for a region that already experiences water stress, because it implies natural variability alone is unlikely to return the region’s climate to normal.” the lead author of the paper.[39] Twelve of the world’s fifteen most water-scarce countries — Bahrain, Qatar, Algeria, Libya, Tunisia, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Oman, the United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, Israel and Palestine — are in the Middle East.

Arctic and Alpine regions

Polar and alpine ecosystems are assumed to be particularly vulnerable to climate change as their organisms dwell at temperatures just above the zero degree threshold for a very short summer growing season. Predicted changes in climate over the next 100 years are expected to be substantial in arctic and sub-arctic regions. Already there is evidence of upward shifts of plants in mountains and in arctic shrubs are predicted to increase substantially to warming [3]

Amazon

One modeling study suggested that the extent of the Amazon rainforest may be reduced by 70% if global warming continues unchecked, due to regional precipitation changes that result from weakening of large-scale tropical circulation.[40]

Sahara

Some studies suggest that the Sahara desert may have been more vegetated during the warmer Mid-Holocene period, and that future warming may result in similar patterns.[41][42][43]

Sahel

Some studies have found a greening of the Sahel due to global warming.[43] Other climate models predict "a doubling of the number of anomalously dry years [in the Sahel] by the end of the century".[31]

Desert expansion

Expansion of subtropical deserts is expected as a result of global warming, due to expansion of the Hadley Cell.[44]

Coastal regions

Past sea-level changes and relative temperatures. Global warming is expected to dramatically affect sea level.

Global sea level is currently rising due to the thermal expansion of water in the oceans[45] and the addition of water from ice sheets.[46] Because of this, there low-lying coastal areas, many of which are heavily populated, are at risk of flooding.[47][48]

Areas threatened by current sea level rise include Tuvalu[49] and the Maldives.[50] Regions that are prone to storm surges, such as London, are also threatened.[51]

With very high confidence, IPCC (2007) projected that by the 2080s, many millions more people would experience floods every year due to sea level rise.[52] The numbers affected were projected to be largest in the densely populated and low-lying megadeltas of Asia and Africa. Small islands were judged to be especially vulnerable.

Ocean effects

North Atlantic region

It has been suggested that a shutdown of the Atlantic thermohaline circulation may result in relative cooling of the North Atlantic region by up to 8C in certain locations.[53] Recent research suggests that this process is not currently underway.[54]

Tropical surface and troposphere temperatures

In the tropics, basic physical considerations, climate models, and multiple independent data sets indicate that the warming trend due to well-mixed greenhouse gases should be faster in the troposphere than at the surface.[55]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Herring, D. (March 6, 2012). "ClimateWatch Magazine » Global Temperature Projections". NOAA Climate Portal.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9  This article incorporates public domain material from the US Environmental Protection Agency document: US Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) (14 June 2012), International Impacts & Adaptation: Climate Change: US EPA, US EPA
  3. 1 2 Alatalo, JM; Little, CJ; Jägerbrand, AK; Molau, U (2014). "Dominance hierarchies, diversity and species richness of vascular plants in an alpine meadow: contrasting short and medium term responses to simulated global change". PeerJ 2: e406. doi:10.7717/peerj.406.
  4. 1 2 3 4  This article incorporates public domain material from the NOAA document: NOAA (January 2007), "Patterns of greenhouse warming" (PDF), GFDL Climate Modeling Research Highlights (Princeton, NJ, USA: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory (GFDL)) 1 (6). Revision 2/2/2007, 8:50.08 AM.
  5. ↑ NOAA (17 November 2012), NOAA GFDL Climate Research Highlights Image Gallery: Patterns of Greenhouse Warming, NOAA GFDL
  6. 1 2 3 4 Tsosie, Rebecca (2007). "Indigenous People and Environmental Justice:The Impact of Climate Change". University of Colorado Law Review 78: 1625.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Barnett, Jon; Adger, W. Neil (2003). "Climate Dangers and Atoll Countries". Climatic Change 61 (3): 321–337. doi:10.1023/B:CLIM.0000004559.08755.88.
  8. 1 2 Church, John A.; White, Neil J.; Hunter, John R. (2006). "Sea-level rise at tropical Pacific and Indian Ocean islands". Global and Planetary Change 53 (3): 155–168. doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2006.04.001.
  9. 1 2 3 Mimura, N (1999). "Vulnerability of island countries in the South Pacific to sea level rise and climate change". Climate Research 12: 137–143. doi:10.3354/cr012137.
  10. 1 2 Mortreux, Colette; Barnett, Jon (2009). "Climate change, migration and adaptation in Funafuti, Tuvalu". Global Environmental Change 19 (1): 105–112. doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2008.09.006.
  11. 1 2 3 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007d). "3.3.3 Especially affected systems, sectors and regions". In Core Writing Team, et al. (eds.). Synthesis report. Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report. A Contribution of Working Groups I, II, and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Integovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Geneva, Switzerland: IPCC. Retrieved 2011-09-15.
  12. ↑ Anisimov, O.A.; et al. (2007). "15.3.2 Projected atmospheric changes". In Parry, M.L., et al. (eds.). Chapter 15: Polar Regions (Arctic and Antarctic). Climate change 2007: impacts, adaptation and vulnerability: contribution of Working Group II to the fourth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Cambridge University Press (CUP): Cambridge, UK: Print version: CUP. This version: IPCC website. ISBN 0-521-88010-6. Retrieved 2011-09-15.
  13. ↑ Schneider, S.H.; et al. (2007). "19.3.3 Regional vulnerabilities". In Parry, M.L., et al. (eds.). Chapter 19: Assessing Key Vulnerabilities and the Risk from Climate Change. Climate change 2007: impacts, adaptation and vulnerability: contribution of Working Group II to the fourth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Cambridge University Press (CUP): Cambridge, UK: Print version: CUP. This version: IPCC website. ISBN 0-521-88010-6. Retrieved 2011-09-15.
  14. ↑ Boko, M.; et al. (2007). "Executive summary". In Parry, M.L., et al. (eds.). Chapter 9: Africa. Climate change 2007: impacts, adaptation and vulnerability: contribution of Working Group II to the fourth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Cambridge University Press (CUP): Cambridge, UK: Print version: CUP. This version: IPCC website. ISBN 0-521-88010-6. Retrieved 2011-09-15.
  15. ↑ UNEP 2007
  16. ↑ "Executive summary" (PDF), Missing or empty |title= (help), in UNEP 2007
  17. 1 2 "Executive summary" (PDF), Missing or empty |title= (help), in UNEP 2007, pp. 8–9
  18. ↑ "Executive summary" (PDF), Missing or empty |title= (help), in UNEP 2007, p. 6
  19. ↑ "Ch 3. Natural Disasters" (PDF), Missing or empty |title= (help), in UNEP 2007, p. 69
  20. ↑ Mimura, N.; et al. (2007). "Executive summary". In Parry, M.L., et al. (eds.). Chapter 16: Small Islands. Climate change 2007: impacts, adaptation and vulnerability: contribution of Working Group II to the fourth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Cambridge University Press (CUP): Cambridge, UK: Print version: CUP. This version: IPCC website. ISBN 0-521-88010-6. Retrieved 2011-09-15.
  21. ↑ Cruz, R.V.; et al. (2007). "10.6.1 Megadeltas in Asia". In Parry, M.L., et al. (eds.). Chapter 10: Asia. Climate change 2007: impacts, adaptation and vulnerability: contribution of Working Group II to the fourth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Cambridge University Press (CUP): Cambridge, UK: Print version: CUP. This version: IPCC website. ISBN 0-521-88010-6. Retrieved 2011-09-15.
  22. ↑ Boé, J.; Hall, A.; Qu, X. (2009). "September sea-ice cover in the Arctic Ocean projected to vanish by 2100". Nature Geoscience 2 (5): 341. Bibcode:2009NatGe...2..341B. doi:10.1038/ngeo467.
  23. ↑ DeWeaver, Eric (2007). "Uncertainty in Climate Model Projections of Arctic Sea Ice Decline: An Evaluation Relevant to Polar Bears" (PDF). USGS Science Strategy to Support U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Polar Bear Listing Decision. USGS Administrative Report. p. 40. Retrieved 2009-04-05.
  24. ↑ Stirling, I; Derocher, AE (1993). "Possible impacts of climatic warming on polar bears". Arctic 46 (3): 240–245. doi:10.14430/arctic1348.
  25. ↑ . ISBN 978-0-521-61778-9. Missing or empty |title= (help)
  26. ↑ Amstrup, Steven C.; Stirling, Ian; Smith, Tom S.; Perham, Craig; Thiemann, Gregory W. (2006). "Recent observations of intraspecific predation and cannibalism among polar bears in the southern Beaufort Sea". Polar Biology 29 (11): 997–1002. doi:10.1007/s00300-006-0142-5.
  27. ↑ Jolling, Dan (13 June 2008). "Study: Polar bears may turn to cannibalism". USA Today. Retrieved 2009-04-05.
  28. ↑ Hulbe, Christina (2002) "Larsen Ice Shelf 2002, warmest summer on record leads to disintegration" website of Portland State University, online
  29. ↑ Antarctic Ice Shelf Collapse Triggered By Warmer Summers Office of News Services, University of Colorado at Boulder, Jan. 16, 2001
  30. ↑ Domack E, Duran D, Leventer A, Ishman S, Doane S, Scott McCallum, Amblas D, Ring J, Gilbert R, Prentice M (4 August 2005). "Stability of the Larsen B ice shelf on the Antarctic Peninsula during the Holocene epoch". Nature 436 (7051): 681–5. Bibcode:2005Natur.436..681D. doi:10.1038/nature03908. PMID 16079842. [Ice Shelf disintegration threatens environment, Queen's study Lay summary] Check |laysummary= value (help) – Eurekalert! (3 August 2005).
  31. 1 2 Lenton, T. M.; Held, H.; Kriegler, E.; Hall, J. W.; Lucht, W.; Rahmstorf, S.; Schellnhuber, H. J. (2008). "Inaugural Article: Tipping elements in the Earth's climate system". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 105 (6): 1786. doi:10.1073/pnas.0705414105.
  32. ↑ Zwally, J.; Abdalati, W.; Herring, T.; Larson, K.; Saba, J.; Steffen, K. (Jul 2002). "Surface melt-induced acceleration of Greenland ice-sheet flow". Science 297 (5579): 218–222. Bibcode:2002Sci...297..218Z. doi:10.1126/science.1072708. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 12052902.
  33. ↑ Dahl-Jensen, D. (2009). "Greenland ice cores tell tales on the Eemian period and beyond". IOP Conference Series Earth and Environmental Science 6: 012008–011755. Bibcode:2009E&ES....6a2008D. doi:10.1088/1755-1307/6/1/012008.
  34. ↑ Lowe, Jason; Jonathan M. Gregory; Jeff Ridley; Philippe Huybrechts; Robert J. Nicholls; Matthew Collins (January 2006). "The Role of Sea-Level Rise and the Greenland Ice Sheet in Dangerous Climate Change: Implications for the Stabilisation of Climate" (PDF). UK Met Office. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 27, 2009. Retrieved 2009-03-29.
  35. ↑ Stephen J. Banta (1985). Wetland soils: characterization, classification, and utilization : proceedings of a workshop held 26 March to 5 April 1984. International Rice Research Institute. ISBN 971-10-4139-1.
  36. ↑ Global warming benefits to Tibet: Chinese official. Reported 18/Aug/2009.
  37. ↑ Pearce, Fred (28 March 2009). "Arctic meltdown is a threat to humanity". New Scientist (2701).
  38. ↑ UNEP Year Book2010, An Overview of Our Changing Environment, United Nations Environment Programme 2010 page 36
  39. ↑ The Other Arab Spring April 7, 2012 Thomas L. Friedman New York Times Op Ed
  40. ↑ Cook; Vizy (June 2007). "Effects of 21st Century Climate Change on the Amazon rainforest" (PDF). Journal of Climate. Retrieved 2009-03-29.
  41. ↑ Claussen, Martin; Veronika Gayler (Sep 1997). "The Greening of the Sahara during the Mid-Holocene: Results of an Interactive Atmosphere-Biome Model". Global Ecology and Biogeography Letters (Blackwell Publishing) 6 (5): 369–377. doi:10.2307/2997337. JSTOR 2997337.
  42. ↑ Claussen, M.; Brovkin, V.; Ganopolski, A.; Kubatzki, C.; Petoukhov, V. (2003). "Climate Change in Northern Africa: the Past is Not the Future". Climatic Change 57: 99–06. doi:10.1023/A:1022115604225.
  43. 1 2 "Sahara Desert Greening Due to Climate Change?". News.nationalgeographic.com. Retrieved 12 June 2010.
  44. ↑ Lu, J.; Vecchi, G. A.; Reichler, T. (2007). "Expansion of the Hadley cell under global warming" (Full free text). Geophysical Research Letters 34 (6): L06805. Bibcode:2007GeoRL..3406805L. doi:10.1029/2006GL028443.
  45. ↑ Wigley, T. M. L.; Raper, S. C. B. (1987). "Thermal expansion of sea water associated with global warming". Nature 330 (6144): 127–131. Bibcode:1987Natur.330..127W. doi:10.1038/330127a0.
  46. ↑ Nakada, M.; Lambeck, K. (1989). "Late Pleistocene and Holocene sea-level change in the Australian region and mantle rheology". Geophysical Journal International 96 (3): 497–517. Bibcode:1989GeoJI..96..497N. doi:10.1111/j.1365-246X.1989.tb06010.x.
  47. ↑ "Coastal regions statistics - Statistics explained". European Commission Eurostat. European Commission. 10 December 2010. Retrieved 2011-01-15.
  48. ↑ Revkin, Andrew C. (2012-03-14). "Report Maps U.S. Risks from Rising Seas in Warming World". The New York Times.
  49. ↑ Adams, Jonathan (May 3, 2007). "Rising sea levels threaten small Pacific island nations". International Herald Tribune. Retrieved 2009-03-29.
  50. ↑ Bryant, Nick (28 July 2004). "Maldives: Paradise soon to be lost". BBC News website (BBC). Retrieved 2009-03-29.
  51. ↑ Rowson, Jessica. "thames-flood-barrier-upgrade-ruled-out". New Civil Engineer. Retrieved 2009-03-29.
  52. ↑ IPCC (2007). "3.3.1 Impacts on systems and sectors. In (section): Synthesis Report. In: Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Core Writing Team, Pachauri, R.K and Reisinger, A. (eds.))". Book version: IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland. This version: IPCC website. Retrieved 2010-04-10.
  53. ↑ Vellinga M, Wood RA (2002). "Global Climatic Impacts of a Collapse of the Atlantic Thermohaline Circulation". Climatic Change 54 (3): 251–267. doi:10.1023/A:1016168827653.
  54. ↑ Schiermeier, Q. (Aug 2007). "Ocean circulation noisy, not stalling". Nature 448 (7156): 844–845. Bibcode:2007Natur.448..844S. doi:10.1038/448844b. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 17713489.
  55. ↑ Santer, B. D.; Thorne, P. W.; Haimberger, L.; Taylor, K. E.; Wigley, T. M. L.; Lanzante, J. R.; Solomon, S.; Free, M.; Gleckler, P. J.; Jones, P. D.; Karl, T. R.; Klein, S. A.; Mears, C.; Nychka, D.; Schmidt, G. A.; Sherwood, S. C.; Wentz, F. J. (2008). "Consistency of modelled and observed temperature trends in the tropical troposphere". International Journal of Climatology 28: 1703–1722. doi:10.1002/joc.1756.

References

External links

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